GIFT  OF 
Mrs.    John  B,   Casserly 


THE 


EEASON    WHY: 


A  CAREFUL 


COLLECTION  OF  MANY  HUNDREDS  OF  REASONS  FOR  THINGS 

WHICH,  THOUGH  GENERALLY  BELIEVED,  ARE 

IMPERFECTLY  UNDERSTOOD. 


A  BOOK  OF  CONDENSED  SCIENTIFIC  KNOWLEDGE  FOK 
THE  MILLION. 


THE  AUTHOR  OF    "INQUIRE  WITHIN.-" 


This  collection  ol  useful  information  on  "  Common  Things  "  is  put  in  the  interesting 
form  of  "  Why  and  Because,"  and  comprehends  a  familiar  explanation  of  many  sub. 
iects  which  occupy  a  large  space  in  (he  philosophy  of  Nature,  relating  to  air,  cnlmals, 
atmosphere,  caloric,  chemistry,  ventilation,  materia  medica,  meteorology,  acoustic*, 
eloctrjcity,  light,  zoology,  etc. 


NEW    YORK : 
DICK    &    FITZGERALD,    PUBLISHERS, 

No.    18    ANN    STBEET. 


PREFACE. 


WE  are  all  children  of  one  Father,  whose  Works  it  should  be  our 
delight  to  study.  As  the  intelligent  child,  standing  by  his 
parent's  knee,  asks  explanations  alike  of  the  most  simple 
phenomena,  and  of  the  most  profound  problems ;  so  should  man. 
turning  to  his  Creator,  continually  ask  for  knowledge.  JNot 
because  the  profession  of  letters  has,  in  these  days,  become  a 
fashion,  and  that  the  man  of  general  proficiency  can  Dest  work  out 
his  success  in  worldly  pursuits ;  but  because  knowledge  is  a  trea- 
sure which  gladdens  the  heart,  dignifies  the  mind,  and  ennobles 
the  soul. 

The  occupation  of  the  mind,  by  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  is  of 
itself  a  good,  since  it  diverts  from  evil,  and  by  elevating  and  refining 
the  mind,  and  strengthening  the  judgment,  it  fortifies  us  for  the 
hour  of  temptation,  and  surrounds  us  with  barriers  which  the 
powers  of  sin  cannot  successfully  assail. 

Tt  is  not  contended  that  the  mere  acquisition  of  knowledge 
will  either  ensure  a  good  moral  nature,  or  convey  rengious 
truth.  But  both  religion  and  morals  will  find  in  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge  a  ground- work  upon  which  their  loftier  temples  may 
discover  an  acceptable  foundation. 

The  man  who  comprehends  the  order  of  Nature,  and  tht 
immutability  of  Divine  law,  must  of  necessity  bring  himself  in  some 
degree  into  accordance  with  that  order,  and  under  submission  tc  the 
law :  hence  the  tendency  of  knowledge  will  always  be  found  to 
harmonise  the  fragment  with  the  mass,  and  to  subvert  the 
evil  to  the  good. 

756958 


iv  PBEFACE. 

The  troubles  of  the  world  have  arisen  from  the  want  of  know- 
ledge, not  frcm  the  possession  of  it.  And  in  proportion  as  man 
becomes  an  intelligent  and  reflective  being,  he  will  be  a  better 
creature  in  all  the  relations  of  life.  If  these  benefits,  vast  and 
incalculable  as  they  are,  be  the  real  tendency  and  result  of 
knowledge,  why  is  ignorance  allowed  to  remain,  and  \\by  is 
the  world  still  distracted  by  error? 

It  is  because  the  moral  and  intellectual  qualities  of  man  are, 
like  all  creations  and  gifts  of  God,  the  subjects  of  development, 
whose  law  is  progression. 

We  can  aid  human  improi  ement,  but  we  cannot  unduly  hasten 
it.  Whenever  man  has  sprung  too  rapidly  to  a  conclusion,  he  has 
alighted  upon  error,  and  has  had  to  retrace  his  steps. 

The  greatest  philosophers  have  been  those  who  have  clung  to  the 
demonstrative  sciences,  and  have  held  that  a  simple  truth  well 
ascertained,  is  greater  than  the  grandest  theory  founded  upon 
questionable  premises.  Newton  made  more  scientific  revelations 
to  mankind  than  any  other  philosopher ;  and  his  discoveries  have 
borne  the  searching  test  of  time,  because  he  snatched  at  nothing, 
leaped  over  no  chasm  to  establish  a  favourite  dogma ;  but,  by  the 
slowest  steps,  and  by  regarding  the  merest  trifles,  as  well  as  the 
highest  phenomena,  he  learnt  to  read  Nature  correctly.  He 
discovered  that  her  atoms  were  letters,  her  blades  of  grass  were 
words,  her  phenomena  were  sentences,  and  her  complete  volume 
a  grand  poem,  teaching  on  every  page  the  wisdom  and  the  power 
of  an  Almighty  Creator. 

When  he  observed  an  apple  fall  to  the  ground,  he  asked  the 
"Reason  Why;"  and  in  answer  to  that  enquiry,  there  came 
one  of  the  grandest  discoveries  that  has  ever  been  recorded 
upon  the  book  of  science.  With  that  discovery  a  flood  of  light 
burst  upon  the  human  mind,  illustrating  in  a  far  higher  degree 
than  had  ever  previously  been  conceived,  the  vastness  of  Almighty 
Power. 

Why  should  not  each  of  us  enquire  the  "  Eeason  Why " 
regarding  everything  that  we  observe?  Why  should  we  men- 


PREFACE. 


tally  grope  about,  when  we  may  see  our  way?  When  addressed 
in  a  foreign  tongue,  we  hear  a  number  of  articulated  sounds, 
to  which  we  can  attach  no  meaning ;  they  convey  nothing  to 
the  mind,  make  no  impression  upon  the  indwelling  soul. 
When  those  sounds  are  interpreted  to  us,  in  a  language  that 
\ve  can  understand,  tbey  impart  impressions  of  joy,  hope, 
surprise,  or  sorrow,  because  the  words  convey  to  us  a  meaning. 
In  like  manner,  if  we  fail  to  understand  Nature,  its  beauties, 
its  teachings  are  lost.  Everything  speaks  to  us,  but  we  do  not 
understand  the  voices.  They  come  murmuring  from  the  brook, 
trilling  from  the  bird,  or  pealing  from  the  thunder;  but  though 
they  reach  the  ear  of  the  body,  they  do  not  impress  the 
listening  spirit. 

Every  flower,  every  ray  of  light,  every  drop  of  dew,  each  flake 
of  snow,  the  curling  smoke,  the  lowering  cloud,  the  bright  sun, 
the  pale  moon,  the  twinkling  stars,  speak  to  us  in  eloquent  lan- 
guage of  the  great  Hand  that  made  them.  But  millions  lose  tho 
grand  lesson  which  Nature  teaches,  because  they  can  attach  no 
meaning  to  what  they  see  or  hear. 

"  THE  REASON  WHY"  is  offered  as  an  interpreter  of  many  of 
Nature's  utterances.  Great  care  has  been  taken  that  these  in- 
terpretations may  be  consistent  with  the  latest  knowledge,  obtained 
from  the  highest  sources.  If  the  author  finds  that  his  work  i.c 
accepted  for  the  good  of  those  who  seek  not  only  to  know,  but  to 
understand,  he  will  make  it  his  constant  care  to  read  the  Book  of 
Nature,  and  to  add  to  the  pages  of  this  volume  whatever 
interpretations  the  progress  of  enquiry  and  discovery  may  demand 
and  supply. 


INDEX,  AND  INDEX  LESSONS. 


^^^  The  numbers  refer  to  the  Questions.  The  Index  Lessons  do  not  cor* 
respond  with  the  Chapters,  but  are  designed  to  bring  together  in  their  alpha* 
betical  connection,  all  the  Questions  and  Answers  upon  each  particular  subject 
included  in  the  work. 

LESSON  III. 

Air,  which  is  heavier,  dry  or  va- 
porised   697 

Air-pistol  (or  pop-gun),  why  does 
pressure  applied  to  the  handle 
propel  the  cork  854 

Air-pistol,  why  must  the  handle  be 
drawn  out  before  the  cork  is 
placed  iu  855 

Air,  why  does  fresh  impart  a 
healthy  appearance  915 

Albumen,  what  is  it  899 

Alkalies,  what  are  they     36 

Amber,  or  electrum,  what  is  it  ...    564 

Animals,  how  is  their  greater 
warmth  in  winter  provided  for  168 

Animal  forms,  why  are  there  so 
many 1029 

Animal  furs,  why  do  they  become 
thicker  in  the  winter  1035 

Animals,  why  have  carnivorous, 
long  pointed  teeth  1038 

LESSON  IV. 

Animals  with  long  necks,  why 
have  they  large  throats 1049 

Animals,  why  cannot  flesh-eaters 
live  upon  vegetables  1071 

Animals,  why  can  ruminating 
recover  the  food  from  their 
paunches  1089 

Animals,  why  can  ruminating 
keep  the  chewed  from  the  un- 
chewed  food  in  their  stomachs  1090 

Animals,  why  do  the  smaller 
animals  breed  more  abundantly 
than  the  larger  ones  1094 

Animals,  domestic,  why  may 
change  of  weather  be  expected 
when  they  are  restless 1107 

Animals,  plants,  and  minerals, 
what  are  thv  differences  between 
them 1140 

Animals  that  graze,  why  do  they 
crop  the  tender  blades,  but  leave 
the  tall  grass  1S87 


LESSON  I. 

Acids,  vegetable,  whence  are  they 

obtained  1256 

Actinism,  what  is  it 552 

Actinism,  what  effect  has  it  upon 

vegetation 559 

Actinism,  at  what  season  of  the 

year  is  it  most  abundant          ...    560 
Aerial  spectra,  what  is  the  cause  of    527 
Affinity,  what  is  the  attraction  of   777 
Air,  why  do  we  breathe  it ...       ...       4 

Air,  what  is  the  composition  of  it  12 
Air,  what  is  its  state  after  it  has 

been  breathed  13 

Air,  is  that  sent  from  the  lungs 

light  or  heavy  14 

Air,  is  it  a  good  or  bad  conductor 

of  heat  150 

Air,  why  is  a  still  summer  said  to 

be  sultry  171 

Air,  why  does  it  feel  cooler  when 

in  motion,  than  when  still       ...    175 

LESSON  II. 

Air,  when  is  it  hot  enough  to  des- 
troy life  179 

Air,  why  is  it  often  excessively 
hot  in  chalk  districts  219 

Air,  is  it  heated  directly  by  the 
sun's  rays 221 

Air,  why  does  it  ascend  the  chim- 
ney   240 

Air,  why  does  it  fly  through  the 
doors  and  windows  towards  the 
fire  place 241 

Air,  what  does  the  motion  of  it 
in  our  rooms  illustrate 242 

Air,  why  does  it  become  charged 
with  watery  vapour  346 

Air,  when  is  it  said  to  be  saturated 
with  vapour  430 

Air,  what  proportion  of  water  is 
air  capable  of  holding  in  the 
form  of  vapour  431 

Air,  what  is  its  weight  relative  to 
that  of  water  647 


QUESTIONS    FOBMING   A   COMPLETE   INDEX. 


LESSON  V. 

Animals,  distribution  of 132 

Arms  and  hands,  why  do  we  see 

blue  marks  upon  them 89 

Arms  and  legs,  why  does  it  require 

the  influence  of  the  will  to  set 

them  in  motion    917 

Arms  and  legs,  why  are  they  made 

subject  to  the  will         919 

Ascending,  what  is  the  cause  of 

bodies          775 

Atmosphere,  how  is  it  heated    ...    23:. 
Atmospheric  humidity,  why  does 

it  sometimes  form    clouds,   at 

others  form  dews,  fogs,  mists,  &c.    409 
Atmospheric  pressure,  how  high 

will  it  raise  water          65; 

Atmosphere,  what  is  the 639 

Atmosphere,  to  what  height  does 

it  extend     639 

Atmosphere,  what  is  the  amount 

of  its  pressure      641 

Atmosphere,  what  is  the  propor- 
tion of  watery  vapour  in  the   ...    642 
Atmosphere,  why  are  its  upper 

regions  intensely  cold    441- 

Atmosphere,  what  is  the  greatest 

height  ever  reached  in  the      ...    618 

LESSON  VI. 

Atmospheric  pressure,  what  is  the 
total  amount  on  the  earth's 
surface  644 

Atmosphere,  what  is  the  amount 
of  its  pressure  upon  t  he  human 
body  645 

Atmosphere,  why  do  we  not  feel 
its  pressure  646 

Atmosphere,  to  what  extent  may 
its  pressure  vary 702 

Attractive  agent,  what  is  an       ...      7<i 

Attraction,  what  is  it        772 

Attraction,  how  many  kinds  are 
there  773 

Aurora  Borealis,  what  is  the  cause 
of  590 

Bananas  or  plantains,  where  are 
they  cultivated 1220 

Bark  Peruvian,  where  is  it  pro- 
duced   •  ...  122S 

Barometer,  what  is  a       ...         ...    691 

Barometer,  why  does  it  indicate 
the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
jhere  6D2 

Barometer,  why  is  it  also  called  a 
"weather-glass" 693 

Barometers,  why  are  they  con- 
structed with  circular  dials  ...  694 

Barometer,  why  does  the  hand 
change  its  position  when  the 
mercury  rises  or  falls  695 

Barometer,  why  does  tapping  its 
face  cause  the  hand  to  move  ...  696 

Barometer,  why  does  its  fall  de- 
note the  approach  of  rain  ...  699 


LESSON  VII. 

Barometer,  why  does  its  rise  de- 
note    the     approach    of   fine 

weather       700 

Barometer,  how  does  it  enable  us 

to  calculate  ihe  height  of  the 

mountains 701 

Barometer,  when  does   it    stand 

highest         704 

Barometer,  when  does   it   stand 

lowest          705 

Barometer,  what  effect  has  heat 

upon  the      TO"7 

Barometer,  what  effect  has  cold 

upon  the      708 

Balloons,  why  do  they  ascend  in 

air      833 

Balloons,   why   do    air    balloons 

become  inflated '  831 

Balloons,  why  do  they  sometimes 

burst  whtn  they  reach  a  high 

altitude        832 

Bat  and  ball,  what  principles  of 

natural     philosophy   are   illus- 

tra'ed  in  the  play  867 

I'ats,     why    have    they    hooked 

claws  in  their  wings       1079 

Bats,  why  do  they  fly  by  night  ...  1080 

LESSON  VIII. 

Hats,  why  do  they  sleep  during 

winter          1081 

Beds,  why  should  they  be  raised 

two  feet  from  the  ground          ...      15 
Bed-room  windows,  why  are  they 
sometimes     covered    with    ice 

crystals        3i4 

tieer,  why  will  it  not  run  out  of 
a  cask  until  a  hole  is  made  at 

the  top         660 

3eer,  why  d  ws  it  get  flat 805 

Jees,  why  have  they  stings         ...  lltl 
Sees,   why   may   we  expect  fine 
weather  when  bees  wander  far 

from  their  hives 1114 

Jeetles,    why   are     they    called 

"  coleoptera  "        1319 

Jeotles,  why  have  they  hard  horny 

wing-cases  1320 

Jeetles,  why  have  many  of  them 

hard  horns  1321 

Jile,  why  does  it  separate  nutri- 
tious from  innutritions  matter    881 
>irds,     why    have     water- fowls 
feathers  of  a  close  and  smooth 

texture        1033 

irds,  why  are  they  covered  with 

feathers       1030 

irds,  why  does  black  down  grow 
under    their    feathers    on    the 

approach  of  winter         1036 

irds,  why  have  they  hard  beaks  104U 
iirds,     why    are     their     beaks 
generally  long  and  sharp         ...1041 
lirds,  #hy  are  their  bones  hollow  1060 
!irds,  why  do  they  'ay  eggs       ...  1051 


QUESTIONS  FOBMING   A.  COMPLETE   INDEX. 


LESSON  IX. 

Birds,  why  have  those  with  long 
legs  short  tails  ...  1052 

Birds,  why  have  aquatic  web- 
feet  .-  1059 

Birds  why  have  those  that  swim 
and  dive  short  legs  ...  ...  1060 

Birds,  why  have  some  deep  rough 
notches  on  the  under  surfaces  of 
their  feet ...  ..,  1061 

Birds,  why  have  they  gizzards   ...  1072 

jiinlsofprey  why  have  they  no 
gizzards  1084 

Birds,  why  may  wet  and  thunder 
be  expected  when  they  cease  to 
sing  ..  ...  •••  •••  ••'  1121 

Birds  of  passage,  why,  if  they 
arrive  early,  may  severe  weather 
be  expected 1121 

Birds   geological  distribution  of...  1326 

Jirds,  tameness  of  in  unfrequented 
countries  ...  ...  1327 

Birds,  why  are  birds  of  song  not 
also  remarkable  as  birds  of 

Bud^w^fat  are  the"  velocities  of 
their  flights  ...  1329 

Birds,  what  is  the  cause  of  their 
migrations  1330 

Blaci,  why  should  parts  of  kettles 
an<!  saucepans  be  allowed  to  re- 
main  204 

Blood,  in  what  proportions  are  the 
gases  found  in  it...  39 

LESSOX  X. 

Blood,  -vhat  is  venous      41 

Blood,  what  is  arterial       42 

Blood,  what  is  the  constitution  of 

the     899 

Blood,   what  quantity  does   the 

human  body  contain      920 

Blood,  how  frequently  does  the 

whole  quantity  pass  through  the 

system         •••        •••    922 

Blowing  upon  tea,  why  does  it  cool 

it        174 

Bow.    why  does   it    propel   the 

arrow  847 

Bow  and  arrow,  what  line  does  the 

arrow  describe      8i8 

Bow  and  arrow,  what  forces  tend 

to  arrest  the  arrow        849 

Bow  and  arrow,  why   are  there 

feathers  at  the  ends  of  arrows ...    850 
Bones,  how  many  are  there  in  the 

human  body          923 

BOI..-S,  of  what  substances  are  they 

composed 924 

Bonos,  what  are  the  uses  of  the ...    925 
Bones,  why  are  those  of  the  back 

hollowed  out         927 

Bones,  why  are  those  of  the  skull 

arched          930 

Bones,  why  are  those  of  the  skull 

divided  by  small  sutures          ...    931 
Bones,  why  are  they  hollow       ...    934 


LESSON  XII. 
Bones,  why  are  those  of  the  arms 

and  legs  formed  into  long  shafts   935 
Bones,  why  are  those  of  the  feet 

and  hands  numerous  and  small    936 

Botanical  geography          1208 

Brain,  why  is  it  placed  within  the 

skull  926 

Bread-fruit  trees,  where  are  they 

natives  of 1223 

Breathing,  is  it  a  kind  of  combus- 
tion        17 

Breaths,   have   people  ever  been 

poisoned  by  their  own 21 

Breezes,  why  are  summer  said  to 

be  cool        170 

Breezes,  what  is  the  cause  of  sea 

and  land      ...        235 

Bubbles,  why  do  they  ascend  in 

the  air        236 

Bubbles,  why  do  they  fall,  after 

having  ascended 237 

Bubbles,  why   do    they    display 

rainbow    colours  499 

Bubbles,  why  are  they  round     ...    825 
Bubbles,  why  are  they  elongated 

when  being  blown         826 

Bubbles,  why  do  they  close,  and 

become  perfect    spheres  when 

shaken  from  the  pipe    827 

Bubbles,    why  do   they   change 

their  colours  in  the  sunshine   ...    828 
Bubbles,  why  do  they  burst      ...    829 

LESSON  XI. 

Burning  or   supporting  combus- 
tion, what  is  the  difference     ...      45 
Burning-glasses,    why     do    they 

appear  to  set  fire  to  substances       S; 
Butterflies,  why  do  they  lay  their 

upon  cabbage-leaves        ...  109& 


Butterflies'  eggs,  why  do  they  lie 
dormant  in  the  winter 1288 

Butterflies,  why  do  they  fly  by 
day 1298 

Calms,  why  do  they  prevail  at  the 

equator  671 

Caloric,  what  is  it  72 

Caloric,  what  is  the  source  of  it...  73 
Caloric,  what  are  the  effects  of  it  74 
Caloric,  why  is  it  called  a  repulsive 

agent  75 

Caloric,  how  may  it  be  excited  to 

develope  heat  79 

Caloric,  is  there  any  in  ice,  snow, 

water,  marble,  &c 89 

Caloric,  how  do  we  measure  the 

quantity  of  in  any  substance  ...  329 
Caloric,  how  does  it  travel  ...  332 
Caloric,  how  do  we  know  that  it  is 

caloric  which  fuses  metals  . . .  334 
Calves  and  lambs,  why  have  they 

no  horns  1069 

Camel,  why  has  its  stomach  a 

number  of  distinct  bags 1065 

Candles,  why  do  tallow  require 

snuffing       264 


QUESTIONS   FORMING   A.   COMPLETE    INDEX. 


LESSON  XIII. 

Candles,  why  do  composite  and 
war  not  require  snuffing  ...  265 

Candle,  what  becomes  of  it  after 
it  is  burnt 289 

Capillary  blood-vessels,  why  are 
they  found  in  every  part  of  the 
system  919 

Capillary  attraction,  what  is  it  ...    780 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  how  is  it 
formed  9 

Carbonicacid  gas,  what  becomes  of  it   10 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  is  it  heavier  or 
lighter  than  air 11 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  what  are  the 
chief  sources  of  ...  16 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  what  is  its 
effect  upon  the  human  system  21 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  what  becomes 
of  that  formed  by  combustion  59 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  what  propor- 
tion is  dangerous  to  life 60 

Carbonic  acid,  what  is  it 798 

Carbonic  acid,  where  does  it 
chiefly  exist 799 

Carbonic  acid,  what  a*e  its  pure 


18 


Carbon,  what  is  it 

Carbon,  will  it  produce  flame 
when  burnt  in  oxygen 106 

Carbon  and  hydrogen,  what  dif- 
ferences characterise  the  com- 
bustion of  268 

LESSON  XIV. 

Carbon,  what  is  the  purest  form 
of  it 277 

Card,  why  do  the  images  on  each 
side  blend  while  a  card  is  re- 
volving   846 

Caterpillars,  why  do  they  appear 
in  the  spring  1289 

Caterpillars,  why  do  they  eat  vora- 
ciously   1290 

Caterpillars,  why  do  they  pass 
into  the  state  of  the  chrysalis...  1291 

Caterpillars,  why  do  they  become 
torpid  in  the  chrysalis 1292 

Caterpillars,  why  do  they  attach 
themselves  to  the  leaves  of 
plants  when  in  the  chrysalis  ...1294 

Cats,  &c.,  why  do  they  see  in  the 
dark  ... 981 

Cats'  eyes,  why  are  the  pupils  of 
nearly  closed  by  day  982 

Cats,  &c.,  why  have  they  whiskers  1096 

Cattle,  why  if  they  run  round  in 
meadows  may  thunder  be  ex- 
pected   1122 

Ceiling,  how  did  Mr.  Sands  walk 
on  the  664 

Cliampasne,  why  does  it  effer- 
vesce   806 

Champagne,  why  do  bubbles  rise 
from  it  in  two  or  three  columns  807 

Charcoal,  why  is  it  dangerous  to 
burn  it  in  rooms 20 


LESSON  XV. 

Charcoal  fires,  why  do  they  not 
give  flames 107 

Charcoal,  what  is  it 275 

Charcoal,  why  does  it  act  as  a 
disinfectant 809 

Chicory,  what  is  it 1196 

Chimney,  why  does  it  cease  smok- 
ing after  the  fire  has  been  lighted 
a  little  while  680 

Chimney,  why  does  a  long  one 
create  a  better  draught  than  a 
short  one  681 

Chimneys,  why  do  some  smoke 
when  windows  and  doors  are 
closed  683 

Chimneys  that  stand  under 
elevated  objects,  why  do  they 
smoke  684 

Chimneys,  why  do  sooty  smoke  ...    6*7 

Chimneys,  why  do  they  smoke  in 
damp  and  gusty  weather  ...  688 

Chimney,  why  does  it  smoke 
when  first  lighted 679 

Chocolate,  what  is  it          1194 

Circulation,  why  are  the  venous 
blood  and  chyle  sent  to  the 
lungs 887 

Circulation,  what  is  the  course  of 
the  arterial  blood 888 

Circulation,  why  does  the  blood 
impart  vitality  ...  ...  „.  891 

LESSON  XVI. 

Circulation,  how  do  we  know  {he 
blood  is  alive  892 

Circulation,  why  does  the  blood 
circulate  893 

Circulation,  how  is  the  body 
renewed  by  the  blood  894 

Circulation,  how  does  the  blood 
return  to  the  lungs  after  it  has 
reached  the  extremities 895 

Circulation,  why  are  the  veins 
more  perceptible  than  the 
arteries  897 

Circulation,  why  when  we  prick 
the  flesh  does  it  bleed 893 

Circulation,  what  occurs  during 
the  899 

Circulation,  what  becomes  of  the 
matter  collected  by  the  blood...  901 

Circulation,  how  is  the  blood  pro- 
pelled through  the  arteries  ...  916 

Circulation,  why  are  the  capillary 
vessels  capable  of  receiving  the 
quantity  of  blood  sent  through 
larger  vessels  917 

Cinnamon,  where  is  it  produced...  1239 

Cleanliness,  why  does  it  promote 
health  1015 

Clothes  on  fire,  why  should  per- 
sons throw  themselves  down  ...  262 

Clothing,  why  do  some  articles 
feel  cold,  and  others  warm  ...  119 


QUESTIONS    FOEMINO   A   COMPLETE   INDEX. 


LESSON  XVII. 

Clothing,  are  conductors  or  non- 
conductors the  warmer  ...  121 

Clothing,  why  are  white  and  light- 
coloured  articles  cool  218 

Clothing,  why  are  dark-coloured 
dresses  worn  in  winter,  and  light 
in  summer  230 

Clouds,  what  are  they       873 

Clouds,  why  do  we  not  see  them 
ascend  375 

Clouds,  why  are  they  invisible 
when  they  rise,  but  become 
visible  when  they  have  ascended  376 

Clouds,  why  do  they  not  descend 
to  the  earth  377 

Clouds,  at  what  altitudes  do  they 
fly  378 

Clouds,  how  many  descriptions 
are  there  879 

Clouds,  what  produces  their 
various  shapes  380 

Clouds,  what  are  their  dimensions    381 

Clouds,  how  are  they  affected  by 
winds  382 

Clouds,  what  do  Cirrus  foretell  ...    389 

Clouds,  what  do  Cumulus  foretell    390 

Clouds,  what  do  Stratus  foretell ...    391 

Clouds,  what  do  Nimbus  foretell     392 

Clouds,  what  do  Cirro-cumulus 
foretell  393 

Clouds,  what  do  Cirro-stratus  fore- 
tell   394 

Clouds,  what  do  Cumulo-stratus 
foretell  395 

LESSON  XVIII. 

Clouds,  why  are  cloudy  days 
colder  than  sunny  days 396 

Clouds,  why  are  cloudy  nights 
warmer  than  clear  nights  ...  397 

Cloudy  days  and  nights,  why  are 
they  not  always  wet  432 

Clouds,  why  are  they  white        ...    531 

Clouds,  why  are  they  sometimes 
yellow  533 

Clouds,  what  developes  the  elec- 
tricityinthe  581 

Clouds,  why  do  they  sometimes 
move  towards  each  other  from 
opposite  directions  778 

Clouds,  why  do  they  gather  around 
mountain  tops  781 

Cloves,  where  are  they  produced  1231 

Coal,  what  is  it        ...         271 

t'oal,  why  do  we  know  that  it  is 
of  vegetable  origin  273 

Coal,  what  are  the  chemical  com- 
ponents of 274 

Coals,  why  do  they  produce  yellow 
flame 279 

Cockles,  why  have  they  stiff  mus- 
cular tongues  1087 

Cocoa,  what  is  it      1195 

Cocoa,  what  tree  produces  it     ...  1221 

Coffee-pot,  why  has  it  a  wooden 
handle  ...  ..  125 


LESSON  XIX. 

Coffee,  what  is  it      1193 

Coffee,  where  is  it  cultivated      ...  1224 

Cohesion,  what  is  the  attraction  of  776 
Coke-fires,  why  do  they  not  give 

flames          107 

Coke,  what  is  it        278 

Cold,  when  is  a  body  said  to  be  78 
Cold,  what  is  the  cause  of  the  sen- 
sation            133 

Cold,  does  it  radiate         207 

Colour,  why  is  a  substance  white  46a 

Colour,  why  is  a  substance  black  467 

Colour,  why  is  a  rose  red...         ...  4<3S 

Colour,  why  is  a  lily  white          ...  469 

Colour,  why  is  a  primrose  yellow  470 
Colour,  why  are  there  so   many 
varieties  of  colour  and  tint  in 

nature         471 

Colours,  remarks  upon      501 

Combustion,    what   takes    place 

during         48 

Combustion,  how  many  kinds  are 

there 93 

Conductors  of  heat,  what  sub- 
stances are  good 110 

Conductors  of  heat,  why  do  bad 

conductors  readily  ignite        ...  295 

Combustion,  what  is  spontaneous  311 
Combustibles  used   for  lighting, 

which  vitiates  the  air  most    ...  62 

Conduction  of  heat,    what  is  the  11 3 
Convection,  what  is  the  chief  effect 

of  the  law  of         243 

LESSON  XX. 

Cork,  what  is  it  1271 

Cork-tree,  why  does  it  shed  its 

own  bark  1272 

Corns,  why  when  they  ache  may 

rain  be  expected 1115 

Corn,  why  does  the  young  ear 

come  up  enfolded  in  two  leaves  1167 

Cotton,  what  is  it  1199 

Cough,  why  do  we 1023 

Crickets,  why  do  they  make  a 

chirping  noise  1123 

Cross -bills,  why  do  their  man- 
dibles overlap  each  other  ...  1136 
Cup  in  a  pie,  why  does  it  become 

filled  with  juice 631 

Cup  in  a  pie,  does  it  prevent  the 

juice  from  boiling  over 662 

Dates,  what  are  they  produced  by  1221 

Death-watch,  why  does  it  make  a 
ticking  noise  .-.  1301 

Dew,  what  is  it        345 

Dew,  what  causes  the  decline  of 
temperature  which  produces  it  347 

Dew,  why  is  there  little  or  none, 
when  the  nights  are  cloudy  ...  348 

Dew,  why  does  it  form  most  abun- 
dantly on  cloudless  nights  ...  349 

Dew,  why  is  there  little  under  the 
branches  of  thick  foliage  ...  357 


Eli 


QUESTIONS    FOEMING   A   COMPLETE   INDEX. 


LESSON  XXI. 

Dew,  why  is  there  none  formed  on 
windy  nights  352 

Dew,  why  are  valleys  and  low 
places  chiefly  subject  to  it  ...  353 

Dew,  what  bodies  receive  little  of 
it  355 

Dew,  what  bodies  receive  most  of 
it  854 

Dew,  at  what  period  of  the  night 
is  it  chiefly  formed  356 

Dew,  why  is  it  chiefly  formed  at 
that  period 357 

Dew,  in  what  parts  of  the  world  is 
the  greatest  quantity  formed  ...  358 

Dew,  in  what  parts  of  the  world  is 
the  least  quantity  formed  ...  359 

Dew,  why  is  it  seldom  formed  at  sea  3(50 

Dew,  why  is  it,  when  heavy,  re- 
garded as  a  precursor  of  rain  ...  361 

Dew,  what  is  honey-dew 364 

Dew,  why  does  it  lie  on  the  ex- 
posed sides  of  screens  of  plants  401 

Dew,  why  does  it  rest  upon  the 
upper  surfaces  of  leaves 402 

Dews,  why  are  cultivated  lands 
more  subject  to  them  than  those 
that  are  uncultivated  403 


LESSON  XXII. 

Dew,  why  does  the  gravel- walk  re- 
ceive less  dew  than  the  grass  ... 

Dew,  why  does  little  of  it  form  at 
the  base  of  hedges,  walls,  and 
trees  

Dews,  why  do  morning  dews  and 
mists  usually  come  together  ... 

Dew,  what  effect  have  winds 
upon  its  formation  

Dew,  why  does  it  foi-m  in  round 
drops  upon  leaves 

Diamond,  what  causes  the  bril- 
liant colours  of  the  

Digestion,  why  does  food  flow 
more  freely  to  the  stomach  dur- 
ing   

Digestion,  why  does  excess  in 
eating  impair  

Digestion,  what  changes  occur  to 
food  in  the  stomach  

Digestion,  what  causes  bilious  at- 
tacks ... 


Digestion,  how  is  the  nutritious 
matter  taken  from  that  which  is 
innutritious  

Digestion,  what  becomes  of  the 
nutrition  when  it  enters  into 
the  circulation  

Dish-covers,  why  should  they 
be  plain  in  form,  and  have 
bright  surfaces  

Dogs,'  geographical  distribution 
of  

Dream,  why  do  we 

prowsiness,  why  is  it  felt  in 
crowded  rooms  


1333 
1020 


22 


LESSON  XXIII. 

Ducks  and  geese,   why  do  they 
dash  water  over  their  backs  on  • 
the  approach  of  rain       1105 

Ducks  and  geese,  why  have  they 
square-pointed  bills        1044 

Dyes,  vegetable,  what  are  they   ..    1259 


Ear,  why  is  it  spread  out  exter- 
nally   

Ears,  why  do  hairs  grow  across 
them 

Ear-wig,  why  is  it  so  called 

Ears,  why  is  wax  secreted  in  the 

Ears,  why  do  singing  noises  occur 
in  the 

Ears,  why  do  people  become  deaf 

Ears,  why  do  people  accustomed 
to  loud  noises  feel  no  inconve- 
nience from  them 

Ears  of  animals  of  prey,  why  do 
they  bend  forward  

Ears  of  animals  of  flight,  why  do 
they  bend  backward  

Earth,  why  is  it  warmer  than  air 
during  sunshine 

Earth,  why  is  it  colder  than  air 
after  sunset... 


987 
988 


1063 

1034 

398 

399 


LESSON  XXIV. 


Earth,  how  can  man  weigh  the  ...  784 
Earth,  what  is  the  weight  of  the  788 
Earth-worms,  why  have  they  no 

feet 1085 

Echoes,     why    do    some     occur 

immediately  after  the  sounds  ...    742 
Echoes,  why  do  some  occur  at  a 
considerable  interval  after  the 

sound 748 

Echoes,  why  do  some  change  the 

tone  and  quantity  of  sounds    ...    744 
Echoes,  why  are  there  sometimes 

several  to  one  sound       745 

Echoes,  are  they  caused  only  by 

distant  objects      746 

Echoes,  what  are  they       741 

Electricity,  what  is  it        561 

Electricity,  why  is  it  so  called  ...  562 
Electric  fluid,  why  is  it  so  called  566 
Electrics,  what  substances  are  ...  567 
Electricity,  what  is  positive  ...  568 
Electricity,  what  is  negative  ...  569 
Electricity,  what  is  vitreous  ...  570 
Electricity,  what  is  resinous  ...  570 
Electrical  phenomena,  what  pro- 
duces them 571 

Electricity,  how  does  its  equili- 
brium become  disturbed          ...    672 
Electricity,  how  does  it  seek  to 

regain  its  equilibrium 573 

Electricity,  what  substances  are 

conductors 574 

Electricity,  what  substances  are 

non-conductors     579 

Electricity,  what  substances  are 
iusulat.  i 575 


qUKSTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLETK    INDKX. 


LESSON  XXV. 

Electricity,  what  is  the  effect  when 
•  a  current  of  electricity  meets 

with  an  insulator  577 

Electric  sparks,  what  is  the  cause 
of  578 

E'ectricity,  why  does  lightning  at- 
tend it  ...  ...  584 

Electricity,  why  does  it  affect  the 
phapes  of  clouds  613 

Electric  storms,  why  are  they 
more  frequent  in  hot  than  in 
cold  weather  624 

Electric  storms,  why  do  they  fre- 
quently occur  after  dry  weather  625 

Electric  storms,  why  do  they  puri- 
fy the  air  629 

Electricity,  what  is  Voltaic  ...     636 

Electrical  attraction,  what  is  it     ...    778 

Elementary  body,  what  is  meant 
by  19 

Element,  what  is  the  most  abun- 
dant in  nature  756 

Elephant,  why  has  it  a  short  un- 
bending neck  1076 

Elephant,  why  has  it  a  trunk        ...  1077 

Elephants'  hind  legs,  why  do  they 
bend  forward  1078 

Etna,  what  are  the  botanical  re- 
gions of  Mount  1240 

Endogenous  sterna,  what  are  they  1280 

LESSON  XXVI. 
Endogenous  stems,  why  do   they 

abound  in  tropical  climates        ...  1281 
Endogenous  stems,  why  have  they 

no  bark          1282 

Endogenous  stems,  why  do  they 

grow  to  a  great  height     ...        ...  1283 

Exogenous  stems,  what  are  they...  1279 
Exercise,   why    does    it   promote 

health 1016 

Exercise,  why  does  it  make  us  feel 

warm   ...        839 

Explosions  of  gas,  what  is  tho  best 

method  of  preventing      65 

Eye-balls,  why  are  they  white      ...    911 
Eye-balls,  why  do  they  sometimes 

become  blood-shot  912 

Eyes,  why  are  they  placed  in  the 

sockets  of  the  skull          929 

Eyes,  why  are  we  able  to  move 

them     965 

Eye,    why    does    the    pupil    look 

black 968 

Eye,  why  is  the  pupil  larger  some- 
times than  at  others  969 

Eyes,  why  have  we  two      970 

Eyes,  why,  having  two,  do  we  see 

singly 971 

Eyes,  why  are  they  provided  with 

eyelids  972 

Eye-lids,    why    are    they    fringed 

with  eye-lashes        973 

Eyes,  whence  are  their  humours 

Je~»ed          ...  ..    976 


LESSON   XXVII. 

Eyes,  why  do  we  feel  inconveni- 
enced  by  sudden  light  978 

Eyoe,  why  if  we  look  upon  a  bright 
object  and  turn  away,  are  we 
unable  to  see 979 

Eyes,  why  are  we  able  to  see  bet- 
ter after  a  little  while  980 

Eyes,  why  do  cats,  bate,  owls,  &c., 
see  in  the  dark  981 

Eels,  why  are  their  eyes  covered 
with  a  transparent  horny  coat  ...  1 130 

Falling,  what  is  the  cause  of  bod- 
ies   774 

Fanning  the  face,  why  does  it  make 
us  feel  cooler  172 

Fata  morgana,  what  is  the  cause 
of  527 

Fatigue,  why  do  we  feel      1017 

Feather,  why  does  it  fall  to  tho 
earth  more  gradually  than  a  shil- 
ling    79 

Features,  why  do  we  preserve  the 
same  through  life  90 

Feel,  why  do  we        100 

Feeling,  why  is  it  impaired  when 
the  hands  are  cold  100 

Feeling,  why  do  the  fingers  prick 
and  sting  when  they  again  be- 
come warm 100 

LESSON  XXVIil. 

Feeling,  why  do  persons  whos« 
legs  or  arms  IIHVH  been  ampu- 
tated, for  some  time  continue  to 
feel  the  part  that  has  been  re- 
moved   1008 

Fibrin,  what  is  it        899 

Fingers,  why  can  we  raise  them  ...    943 

Fingers,  why  can  we  draw  them 
back  after  they  have  been  raised  944 

Fire,  why  does  it  burn  more  bright- 
ly when  blown  by  a  bellowa  ...  27 

Fire,  what  is  it         :' 82 

Fire,  what  are  its  properties          ...      83 

Fire,  what  elements  take  part  in  its 
maintenance  ...  ...  ...  84 

Fire,  how  does  its  combustion  be- 
gin    85 

Fire-screens,  how  do  they  contrib- 
ute to  keep  rooms  cool  217 

Ftre,  why  is  it  sometimes  put  out 
by  blowing  it  when  it  is  low  ...  262 

Fire,  why  does  poking  it  cause  it  to 
burn  more  brightly  ...  ...  287 

Fires,  why  do  "  blow«rs"  improve 
the  draft  of  air  288 

Fire,  why  does  it  sometimes  appear 
red,  and  without  flame  ...  ...  283 

Fire,  what  effect  has  it  upon  air    ...     284 

Fires,  why  do  charcoal  and  coke 
burn  without  flame  ...  ...  29'C 

Fires,  why  are  charcoal  and  coke 
difficult  to  light  293 

Fires,  a  new  plan  of  kindling         ..     2B-* 


xiv 


QUESTIONS    FORM  I  NO    A    COMPLKTK    1NOKX. 


LESSON  XXIX 

Fires,  why  in  lighting  them  do  we 
first  lay  in  paper,  wood,  and  coal  298 

Fire,  why  does  a  poker  laid  across 
the  top  revive  it  when  dull  ...  302 

Fire-places,  why  should  they  be 
near  the  ground  ...  ...  ...  303 

Fire,  why  does  the  blacksmith 
sprinkle  water  upon  the  coals  of 
his  forge  308 

Urea,  what  is  the  best  method  of 
conveying  air  to  684 

Fish,  why  does  putrifying  look  lu- 
minous    95 

Fishes,  why  have  they  flns 1053 

Fishes,  why  are  their  fins  propor- 
tionately so  much  smaller  than 
the  wings  of  birds 1054 

Fishes,  why  have  they  scales        ...  1055 

Fishes,  why  do  they  float  in 
streams,  with  their  heads  to- 
wards the  current 1056 

Fishes,  why  have  they  air-bladders  1057 

Fishes,  why  do  not  their  eyes  con- 
tract   1129 

Fishes,  why  have  they  no  eye-lids ...  1132 

Fishes,  why  have  they  the  power 
of  giving  their  eye-balls  a  sudden 
motion  1133 

Fishes,  why  are  their  tails  so  much 
larger  than  their  fins  1137 

Flume,  what  is  it          96 

LESSON  XXX. 

Flame,  whnt  temperature  is  re- 
quired to  produce?  it  101 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  does  the 
lower  part  of  the  flame  appear 
blue  246 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  does  the 
middle  of  the  flame  look  dark  ...  217 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  does  the 
upper  part  produce  a  bright  yel- 
low light  . .  ...  248 

flame  of  a  candle,  why  is  there  a 
fringe  of  pale  light  around  the 
flame  249 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  does  it  ter- 
minate in  a  point 250 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  does  it 
lengthen  when  anything  is  held 
over  it 251 

Flame  or  spark,  why  does  press- 
ing it  put  it  out  253 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  does  hold- 
ing a  candle  upside  down  put  it 
out  257 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  is  it  more 
difficult  to  blow  out  the  flame  of 
a  candle  with  a  cotton  wick  than 
one  with  a  rush  wick  258 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  does  blow- 
ing  sharply  on  it  put  it  out  ...  259 

F'ame  of  a  candle,  why  will  a  e'en- 
tle  puff  of  air  sometimes  relight 
it  ...  ...  260 


LESSON  XXXI. 

Flnme  of  a  cwndle,  why  will  not  a 
similar  puff  rekindle  a  rush-light  261 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  will  a 
piece  of  paper  twisted  to  form 
an  extinguisher  put  it  out  ...  263 

Flame  of  a  candle,  why  does  it  be- 
come dim  wh^n  the  wick  is 
loaded  with  carbon  267 

Flames  of  a  fire,  why  do  some  ap- 
pear much  whiter  than  others  ...  280 

Flames  of  a  fire,  why  do  some  of 
them  appear  blue 282 

Flesh,  why  does  it  heal  when  we 
cut  it 902 

Flesh-eaters,  why  do  they  satisfy 
themselves  with  a  rapid  meal  ...  1092 

Flesh,  why  do  the  marks  of  deep 
cuts  remain 905 

Flesh,  why  does  that  under  the 
nails  look  red  907 

Flies,  how  can  they  walk  on  the 
ceiling  663 

Flies,  why  have  they  fine  hairs 
growing  on  the  extremities  of 
their  legs  ...  1102 

Flowers,  what  is  the  chief  cause 
of  the  differences  of  their  tem- 
peratures   227 

Flowers,  why  may  wet  weather  be 
expected  when  their  perfume  is 
strong 1103 

LESSON  XXXII. 
Flowers,  why,  if  certain  close,  may 

rain  be  expected    1116 

Flying-top,  why  does  it  rise  on  the 

air        ..         , 843 

Flying-top,  why  does  it  return  to 

the  earth,  when  its  rotations  are 

expended       844 

Focus,  what  is  a          81 

Fogs,  what  are  they 365 

Fogs,  why  are  certain  coasts  very 

liable  to  them          366 

Foga,  what  are  dry     367 

Fogs,  why  do  they  frequently  rise  in 

the  morning  and  fall  in  the  evening    371 
Fogs,  why  do  they  sometimes  rest 

upon  a  locality  for  days  together, 

and  then  disappear  372 

Food,  why  do  we  eat  it        ...        ...    869 

Food,  why  do  we  eat  animal  and 

vegetable        173 

Food,  why  do  we  masticate  it      ...    871 
Food,  how  does  it  descend  into  the 

stomach         ...        ...        ...        ...    375 

Food,  why  do  we  not  feel  it  being 

transmitted  through  the   throat    876 
Food,  why  do  we  feel  uneasy  after 

eating  to  excess      ,         ...     877 

Food,  why  do  we  feel  drowsy  after 

eatin-r  heartily        878 

Food,  why  do  some  portions  nour- 
ish us,  while  other  portions  are 


QUESTIONS  FORMING  A  COMPLETE  INDEX. 


LESSON  XXXIII. 
Fossil,  vegetable,  what  is  it ... 


272 


Friction,  why  does  it  produce  heat  321 
Friction,  why  does  rubbu.'g  two 

surfaces   together  attract  latent 

heat 322 

Frost,  why  is  the  air  warmer 

during 163 

Frost,  what  is  white 412 

Frost,  what  is  black 413 

Frost,  why  are  black  frosts  said  to 

last  414 

Fruit,  \rhy  do  gooseberries,  plums, 

&c.,  taste  acid  1184 

Fruit,  why  do  ripe  taste  sweet, 

and  unripe  sour  1185 

Fruits,  why  are  succulent  most 

abundant  in  tropical  climates  ...  1207 
Fruits  and  vegetables,  why  do  they 

ripen  in  succession  ...        ...  1284 

Furs,  why  are  they  worn  in  winter  166 

Galvanism,  what  is  it 635 

Gas,  what  kind  lights  our  streets  ...  56 
Gas,  why  does  it  expand  in  thin 

air        ...        , 833 

Geology,  what  has  been  its  influ- 
ence upon  botanical  geography  1249 
Giraffes,    why    have    they    small 

heads 1322 

Giraffes,  why  have  they  long  necks  1323 
Giraffes,  why  have  they  long  and 
flexible  tongues       ...        ...        ...  1324 

LESSON  XXXIV. 

Giraffes,  why  are  their  nostrils  nar- 
row and  small,  and  studded  with 
hairs  1325 

Glass  upon  a  lamp,  why  does  it 
increase  the  brilliancy  of  the 
light  266 

Glass,  why  is  it  transparent  ...    506 

Glass,  does  transparent  reflect  any 
light  507 

Glow-worms,  why  have  they 
brushes  attached  to  their  tails  ...  1127 

Glow-worms,  why  do  they  emit 
light  1128 

Gnats,  why  are  their  larvae  aud  pu- 
pae found  in  water 1314 

Gnats,  why  may  fine  weather  be 
expected  if  they  fly  in  large  num- 
bers   1110 

Grasses,  why  are  they  so  widely, 
diffused  throughout  nature  .  ...  1166 

Grasshoppers,  why  are  they  com- 
paratively active  in  their  pupa 
stages 1293 

Gravitation,  what  is  the  attraction 
of  774 

Guano,  why  is  it  a  good  manure  ...  1262 

Gum  resins,  what  are  they  ...        ...  1255 

Gums,  vegetable,  what  are  they    ...  1254 

Gunpowder,  why  does  it  exp'.odo    808 

Gutta-percha,  whotce  is  it  ob- 
tained   1254 


LESSON  XXXV. 

Hail,  what  is  it 443 

Hail,  why  is  it  supposed  that  the 
electrical  etate  of  the  clouds  af- 
fects the  formation  of  hail  ...  449 

Hail-storms,  why  do  they  usually 
occur  by  day  450 

Hairs,  why  do  they  grow  across 
the  passages  of  the  nostrils  ...  993 

Hnlo,  what  is  a ...    494 

Halo,  what  is  the  cause  of  a  ..    495 

Haloes,  why  are  they  sometimes 
large,  and  at  other  times  small  496 

Haloes,  why  do  they  foretell  wet 
weather  497 

Hands,  why  when  we  hold  them 
against  the  candle  do  we  per- 
ceive a  crimson  colour  906 

Hay-stacks,  why  do  they  some- 
times take  fire  spontaneously  ...  316 

Head,  why  is  it  set  upon  the  neck    928 

Hearing,  why  do  people  engaged 
in  battle  frequently  lose  their  ...  991 

Hearing,  death  of  a  dog  through 
noise 991 

Heart,  why  does  it  beat  without 
any  effort  of  the  will  948 

Heart,  why  is  it  placed  in  the  chest 
of  the  body 932 

Heart  and  lungs,  why  are  they  en- 
closed by  ribs  933 

Heart,  why  are  its  motions  made 
independent  of  the  will  950 

LESSON  XXXVI.! 

Heat,  what  is  it  71 

Heat,    what    are   the     properties 

of          86 

Heat,  what  is  animal 87 

Heat,  what  is  latent 88 

Heat,  what  is  a  conductor  of  ...  108 
Heat,  what  is  a  non-conductor  of  ...  109 
Heat,  how  is  it  transmitted  from 

one  body  to  another         119 

Heat,  what  is  the  radiation  of  ...  114 
Heat,  what  is  the  reflection  of  ...  115 
Heat,  what  is  the  absorptfon  of  ...  116 
Hear,  what  is  the  convection  of  ...  117 
Heat,  what  is  the  cause  of  the  sensa- 
tion   134 

Heat,  what  becomes  of  that  which 

the  hearth-stone  receives 136 

Heat,  how  long  does  a  substance 

feel  hot  or  cold  to  the  touch      ...    139 
Hearth-rug,  and  hearth-stone,  their 

relative  states  of  heat       142 

Heat,  which  are  the  better  conduc- 
tors, fluids  or  solids  146 

HoHt,   why  are   dense    substances 
the  best  conductors          ...        ...    147 

Heat,  why  are  fluids  bad  conduc- 
tors   148 

Heat,  why  are  woollen  fabrics  bad 

conductors 149 

Heat,  is  air  a  good  or  bad  conduc- 
tor ...  ...  ...  150 


XVI 


QUESTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLKTK    INHKX. 


LESSON  XXXVII. 

Heat,  is  water  a  good  or  a  bad 
conductor  151 

Heat,  how  do  we  know  that  air  is 
not  a  good  conductor  ...  ...  155 

Heat,  how  do  we  know  that  water 
is  not  n  good  conductor 156 

Heat,  why  ore  bottles  of  hot  water 
wrapped  in  flannel  ...  ...  158 

Heat,  why  are  hot  rolls  wrapped  in 
flannel 159 

Heat,  what  is  the  highest  degree 
that  man  can  bear  ...  ...  ...  176 

Heat,  why  may  man  endure  a  high 
degree  without  injury  178 

Heat,  why  may  we  believe  that 
the  internal  heat  of  the  earth 
does  not  arise  from  terrestrious 
combustion 224 

Heat,  what  is  the  radiation  of        ...     181 

Heat,  what  becomes  of  that  which 
is  radiated  ...  186 

Heat,  when  does  a  body  radiate  it     184 

Heat,  does  the  movement  of  the  air 
aff-ct  the  radiation  of  188 

Heat,  why  will  not  the  motion  of 
air  disturb  the  rays  of  190 

Heat,  what  bodies  are  good  radia- 
tors ot 192 

Kent,  what  bodies  are  bad  radia- 
tors of 193 

H.'at,  why  does  water  keep  hot 
longer  in  a  bright  metal  jug  ...  195 

LESSON  XXXVIII. 

Heat,  may  it  bo  reflected     210 

Heat,   are   light  or  dark-coloured 

bodies  the  best  reflectors            ...     211 
Heat,  what  bodies  are  the  best  re- 
flectors of" 212 

Heat,  why  is  that  which  is  reflected 

less  intense  than  the  primary    ...     214 
Heat,  can   it   be   reflected   in   any 

great  intensity          215 

Heat,  are  good  reflectors  also  good 

absorbers       «' 216 

Heat  of  the  sun's  rays,  how  is  it 

diffused          219 

Heat,  how  do  we  know  that  it  U 

absorbed  by  the  earth      222 

Heat,  do  plants  absorb  it      ...        ...    225 

Heat,  how  is  it  diffused  through 

the  atmosphere       232 

Heat,  how  is  it  diffused  through  the 

ocean  ...          233 

Heat,  why  is  it  developed  during 

chemical  changes 312 

Heat,  what  are  the  sources  of      ...    323 
Heat,  what  is  the  accepted  theory 

of          328 

Heat,  what  is  the  point  at  which 

it  becomes  luminous       545 

Heat,  what  is  the  relative  intensity 

of  primary  and  reflected  ...    548 

Hent  to  cold,  why  does  a  sudden 

change  bring  on  illness    1013 


LESSON  XXXIX. 

Heat  of  the  earth,  HumbolJt'a 
opinion  upon  the  int»  rual  ...  1335 

Heat  of  the  earth,  Hunt's  opinion 
upon  the  internal ]3.'?6 

Hfar,  why  do  we        P83 

Hiccough",  why  do  we  1027 

Hoar-frost,  what  is  it  362 

Hoar-frost,  why  does  it  foretell 
rain 363 

Hoar-frosts,  why  are  they  so  fre- 
quent, and  black-frost  so  unfre- 
quent ...  412 

Hogs,  why  have  Indian  large  tusks 
turning  back  towards  their  eyes  1068 

Hog,  why  is  the  under-jaw  of  the, 
shorter  than  the  upper-jaw  ...  1039 

Hoop,  why  does  it  roll  without  fall- 
ing to  the  ground  861 

Hoop,  why  does  it  when  falling 
make  sevend  side  revolutions  ...  862 

Horses,  why  ha-'e  they  smaller 
stomachs  proportionately  than 
other  animals  1097 

Horse,  why  has  it  no  gall-bladder  1098 

Hordes,  why  is  the  secretion  of 
:  their  eyes  thick  and  flutinous  ...  1134 

Horses  and  cattle,  why  do  they 
stretcfc  out  their  neckc,  and  snuff 
the  «ir  on  the  approach  of  rain  ...  HOC 

Horse-chestnut,  why  is  it  unfit  for 
f"od  1203 

Hot,  when  is  a  body  said  to  be     ...      77 

LESSON  XL. 

Hot  water,  why  does  it  feel  hotter 
in  a  metal  jug  than  in  an  earthen- 
ware one  ...  ...  ...  ...  126 

Hot  metal,  why  does  it  feel  hotter 
than  hot  wool  130 

Hot  metal  and  hot  wool,  which 
would  become  cold  first 131 

Hot  and  cold  bodies,  why,  when 
placed  near  each  other,  do  their 
temperatures  approximate  ...  331 

Humming-tops,  why  do  we  see  the 
figures  painted  on  them  before 
they  spin,  but  not  while  they  are 
spinning  813 

Humming-top,  why  does  it  make  a 
noise  gio 

Hydrogen,  what  is  it 49 

Hydrogen,  will  it  support  animal 
life 50 

Hydrogen,  will  it  support  combus- 
tion    51 

Hydrogen,  why  will  it  explode    ...      52 

Hydrogen,  where  does  it  chiefly 
exist  54 

Hydrogen,  how  is  it  obtained  from 
coal  57 

Hydrogen-gas,  is  an  escape  of  ic 
dangerous  to  life  63 

Hydrogen-gas,  'what  proportion 
mixed  with  air  will  explode  ...  64 

Hydrog-  "-gas,  doe*  it  rise  or  fall  "        6t> 


QUESTIONS    FOKMING    A    COAIPLKTE    INDEX. 


XVH 


LESSON  XLI. 
Hydrogen-gas,  what  proportion  is 

dangerous  if  inhaled        ...        ...      67 

Hydrogen-gas,     what     proportion 

may  be  recognised  by  its  smell      68 
Hydrogen-cas,  may  the  use  of  it 

be  considered  dangerous  ...       70 

Hydrogen-gas,  what  sources  of  it 

are  there  in  our  dwellings         ...       69 
Hydrogen,  why  will  it  burst  into 

flame  when  coals  become  heated    100 
Hydrogen,  why  does  bi-carburet- 

ted  burn  with  a  whiter  flume  than 

common  coal-gas  281 

Ice,  why  are  blocks  of  it  wrapped 

in  flannel  in  summer  time         ...    154 
Ice,  why  does  it  melt  ...        ...    325 

Icn,  why  does  it  occupy  more  space 

than  water     752 

Ignis  fatuus,  what  is  it          318 

Incidence,  what  is  the  line  of  ...  519 
Incidence,  what  is  the  angle  of  ...  521 
India-rubber,  where  is  it  obtained  1254 
Infants,  why  have  they  no  teeth  ...  1070 
Insects,  why  have  they  a  large 

number  of  eyes       1083 

Insects,  why  have  they  long  pro- 
jections from  their  heads  ...  1100 
Insects,  why  do  they  attach  their 

eggs  to  leaves          1295 

Insect',  why  do  they  multiply  so 
numerously 1300 

LESSON  XL1I. 

Insects,  what  is  a  larva        1302 

Insects,  what  is  a  pupa         ...         ...  1303 

Insects,  what  is  a  chrysalis  ...  1304 

Insects,  what  u  a  nymph     1305 

Insects,  why  do  they  abound  in 
decaying  substances  and  in  pu- 
trid waters  1313 

Insects,  why  do  we  see  them  in 

tanks  of  ruin-water  1314 

Iron  articles,  why  are  they  intense- 
ly cold  in  winter  132 

Iron  articles,  why  do  they  usually 

feel  cool,  even  when  near  a  fire    132 
Ironing-box,   why  does    the    iron 
sometimes  become  too  large  for 

the  box  to  receive  it          335 

Ironing-box,  why  does  the  iron  en- 
ter ir,  when  partially  cooled       ...    336 
Iron,  why  does  it  rust  when  wetted    768 

Jew'a-harps,  why  do  they  give  mu- 
sical sounds 851 

Jew's-harps,  why  will  they  not 
produce  loud  sounds  unless  they 
are  applied  to  the  mouih 852 

Jew's-harps,  why  does  the  altera- 
tion of  the  form  of  the  mouth  al- 
ter the  sounds  853 

Kangaroos  and  opossums,  why 
hnve  they  pouches  in  which  they 
carry  their  young  ... 1139 


LESSON  XI.III. 
Kettle-holdurs,    of   what    use    are 

they      ...............    128 

Kettles  and  saucepans,  why  should 

the  lids   and  fronts  of,  be  kept 

bright  ............     206 

Kettles,  why  do  they  become  en- 

crusted with  stony  deposites  ...  7(12 
Kite,  why  does  it  rise  in  the  air  ...  840 
Kite-string,  why  does  it  feel  hot 

when  running  through  the  hand  841 
Kite,  why  does  running  with  it 

cause  it  to  ascend    .........    8  12 

Knowledge,  why  should  we  seek  it  1 
Knowledge,  why  does  the  posses- 

sion of  it  give  us  power    ......        2 

Knowledge,  what  are  the  benefits 

of          ..        ............        3 

Latent  heat,  will  the  abstraction  of 

it  reduce  the  bulk  of  bodies  ...  337 
Latent  heat,  how  do  we  know  that 

it  exists  in  air         .........    339 

Laugh,  why  do  we     .........  1026 

Ligaments,  what  are  they    ......    937 

Ligaments,  why  are  they  wrapped 

around  the  joints    .........     938 

Light,  what  is  it          .........    451 

Leaves,  why  are  they  green  ...  1181 
Leaves,  why  do  some  turn  yellow  1186 
Leaves,  why  do  they  fall  off  in  the 

autumn          ............  1187 

Leaves,  how  to  make  skeleton  ...  1159 

LESSON  XLIV 
Leaves,   why  do  they  turn  brown 

in  autumn      ............  1183 

Lees  crossed,  why  do  we  see  the 

elevated  leg  move  at  regular  in- 

tervals        :.  ..........    918 

Light,  fit  what  velocity  does  it  travel  453 
Light,  how  long  dues  it  take  to 

travel  from  the  sun  to  the  earth  454 

Light,  what  nre  the  minor  sources  of  45? 

Light,  what  is  a  nty  of         ......  458 

Light,  what  is  a  medium  of          ...  459 

Light,  what  is  a  beam  of     ......  460 

Light,  what  is  a  pencil  of    ......  461 

Light,  what  is  the  radiant  point  ...  4fi'2 

Light,  what  is  the  focus  of  ...  46.J 

Light,  what  is  the  constitution  of  a 

ray  of   ...............  464 

Light,  why  are  its  rnys  white  ...  4(io 
Light,  what  are  the  estimated  vib 


of 


465 
470 


Light,  what  is  the  refraction  of    ... 

Light,  is  it  refracted  when  it  falls 
upon  a  surface  in  a  straight  line  473 

Light,  is  the  direction  in  wliich  iis 
rays  are  best  dependent  on  the 
d.-niities  of  the  media  ......  474 

Light,  why  does  a  epoon  look  bent 
when  placed  in  a  basin  of  water  477 

Light,  wliy  do  we  see  the  rays  of 
the  sun  burst  through  the  clouds 
in  different  directions  ..  474* 


xvm 


QUESTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLKTE    INDKX. 


LESSON  XLV. 

Light,  why  is  the  apparent  depth 
of  water  always  deceptive  ...  479 

Light,  why  are  some  substances 
opaque  to  it  ...  ...  ...  511 

Light,  how  do  we  know  that  bod- 
ies reflect  it  in  every  direction  ...  517 

Light,  meditation  on 517 

Light  and  heat,  what  are  the  differ- 
ences between  540 

Light  and  heat,  are  they  combined 
in  the  sun's  rays  541 

Light  and  heat,  how  do  we  know 
that  they  are  separate  elements  542 

Light  and  heat,  in  what  respects 
are  they  similar  543 

Light  and  heat,  in  what  respects 
are  they  dissimilar  ...  ...  ...  544 

Light,  what  is  polarized       549 

Light,  what  is  the  velocity  of  arti- 
ficial   546 

Light,  at  what  rate  does  the  light 
of  the  stars  travel 547 

Light,  why  does  it  tarnish  silver  ...    553 

Light,  why  does  it  affect  colours  ...    554 

Light,  why  can  pictures  be  taken 
by  the  sun's  rays  555 

Light,  when  does  it  scorch  plants    558 

Lightning,  what  is  the  cause  of     ...    580 

Lightning,  why  does  it  sometimes 
become  zig-zag  586 

Lightning,  why  is  it  sometimes 
forked 587 

LESSON  XLVI. 
ing,  why  is  it  sometimes  like 
lurid  sheet  -...    58$ 

Lightning,  when  is  the  flash  straight    587 

Lightning,  when  does  the  flash  ap- 
pear blue  591 

Lightning,  why  is  it  sometimes 
red,  at  others  blue,  yellow,  or 
white 592 

Lightning,  does  it  ever  pass  from 
the  earth  to  the  clouds  593 

Lightning,  does  it  pass  from  the 
clouds  to  the  earth  594 

Lightning,  what  is  the  force  of     ...     595 

Lightning,  why  is  it  dangerous  to 
stand  near  a  tree  during  a  storm  5S6 

Lightning,  why  is  it  dangerous  to 
sit  near  a  fire  during  a  storm  ...  598 

Lightning,  why  is  it  dangerous  to 
be  near  water  during  a  storm  ...  599 

Lightning,  are  iron  houses  danger- 
ous ...  , 600 

Lightning  why  does  it  seize  upon 
bell  wires,  <fcc.  ...  601 

Lightning,  are  umbrellas  with  steel 
framea  dangerous  ...  ...  ...  603 

Lightning,  are  iron  bedsteads  dan- 
gerous   604 

Lightning,  what  is  the  safest  situa- 
tion during  a  storm  606 

Lightning-conductors,  do  they  at- 
tract electricity  608 


LESSON  XLVII. 

Lightning-conductors,  which  is  the 
best  metal  for  610 

Lightning-conductors,  why  have 
they  sometimes  been  found  inef- 
fective    609 

Lightning-conductors,  why  should 
large  buildings  have  several  ...  611 

Lightning-conductors,  why  should 
they  have  several  branches  pen- 
etrating the  earth 612 

Lightning,  through  what  distance 
will  its  light  penetrate  ...  ...  622 

Lightning,  how  may  we  calculate 
the  distance  of  a  storm  623 

Lightning,  why  is  the  flash  gener- 
ally succeeded  by  heavy  rain  ...  626 

Lightning,  why  is  a  flash  generally 
followed  by  a  gust  of  wind  ...  627 

Lime-kilns,  why  do  persons  viewed 
through  the  hot  air  of,  appear 
distorted  and  tremulous  ...  ...  483 

Limpets,  why  is  it  difficult  to  strike 
them  from  rocks  665 

Lips,  why  are  they  red        ...        ...     913 

Liver,  what  effect  has  it  upon  the 
circulation  901 

Looking-glass,  why,  if  you  hold  one 
at  an~angle  towards  the  sun,  will 
light  be  thrown  in  an  opposite 
direction  208 

Loss,  is  there  any  such  thing  in 
the  operations  of  nature 270 

LESSON  XL VIIL 
Lungs,  why  are  they  placed  in  the 
chest  of  the  body     932 

Magnetism,  what  is  it  633 

Magnetic  bodies,  what  are  they    ...    634 

Magpie,  why  is  a  single  one  said  to 
foretell  bad  weather  1118 

Mahogany,  what  is  it 1190 

Mahogany  and  other  woods,  why 
are  there  curious  markings  in  ...  1273 

Man,  why  is  he  born  without  a 
covering  1034 

Man,  why  has  he  no  external  ap- 
pendage to  his  mouth  1037 

Marbles,  why  do  they  revolve  when 
propelled  along  the  ground  ...  818 

Marbles,  why  do  striped  appear  to 
hnve  more  stripes  when  they  are 
rolling  than  when  at  rest ...  ...  819 

Marbles,  why  do  they  rebound  when 
dropped  upon  the  pavement  ...  820 

Marbles,  why  do  they  roll  furthest 
upon  smooth  surfaces  ,..  ...  821 

Marbles,  how  many  forces  contrib- 
ute to  stop  their  rolling 882 

Marbles,  why  do  the  stripes  upon 
them  disappear  when  they  are 
spinning  rapidly  ...  823 

Marbles,  why  are  the  rings  upon 
them    most  perceptible    at    the' 
"  poles,"  while  they  are  spinning    824 


QUESTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLETE    INDEX. 


XI* 


LESSON   XLIX. 

Matches,  do  they  ignite  sponta- 
neously   313 

Meat,  why  is  it  sooner  cooked 
when  a  tin  screen  is  placed  be- 
fore the  fire 213 

Metal,  why  does  it  run  like  a  fluid 
when  melted 333 

Mirrors,  why  do  we  see  our  fea 
tares  therein  209 

Mirrors,  why  do  we  see  our  faces 
in  them  512 

Mirrors,  what  has  the  glass  of  to 
do  with  the  reflection  514 

Mirrors,  why  do  compound  mir- 
rors reflect  many  images  of  one 
object 515 

Mirrors,  why  do  reflections  appear 
as  far  behind  a  mirror  as  the 
object  reflected  stands  before  it  518 

Mirage,  what  is  the  cause  of  the    ...    527 

Mists,  what  are  they 368 

Mists  and  fogs,  what  is  the  differ- 
ence between  them  ...  ...  369 

Mists  end  fogs,  why  do  they  disap- 
pear at  sunrise  ...  ...  ' ...  370 

Mistletoe,  why  have  its  berries  a 
thick  viscid  juice  1177 

Mistletoe,  how  are  its  seeds  con- 
veyed to  the  bark  of  trees  ...  1178 

Moles,  why  have  they  hard  flat  feet  1074 

Mole's  fur,  why  is  it  glossy  and 
smooth  1075 

LESSON  L. 

Moles,  why  are  they  permanent  ...    904 
Moles,  why  may  rain  be  expected 
when  they  throw  up  their  hills  1117 

Monsoons,  what  are  they    672 

Monsoons,  what  is  the  cause  of    ...    673 
Mornings,   why  are    they  usually 

clear  when  frosty 410 

Mother-of-penrl,  vyhat    causes    the 

rich  tints  displayed  by     500 

Moths,  why  do  they  fly  by  night ...    1297 
Moths,  why  are  their  bodies  gen- 
erally covered  with  thick  down  1228 
Moths,  why  do  they  fly  against  the 

candle-flame  1299 

Muscles,  how  many  are  there  in 

the  human  body      941 

Muscle,  what  is  the  constitution  of  a    942 
Muscles,  what  degree  of  strength 

do  they  possess       945 

Muscles,  what  is  the  stimulus  which 
sets  them  in  action  ...        ...    946 

Mussels,  why  have  they  tendi- 
nous cords  proceeding  from 
their  shells 1086 

Natural  phenomena,  a  world  of 
miniature  ...  ...  ...  ...  690 

Nails,  why  have  we  got  them  at  the 
fingers'  ends 908 

Kails,'  why  is  there  a  circular  line  of 
whitish  colour  at  the  root  of  the  909 


LESSON  LI. 
Nails,  why  do  white  spots  occur 

upon  the        910 

Needle,  why  will  it  float  if  laid  care- 
fully upon  water  795 

Nerves,  what  are  they          951 

Nervous  system,  of  what  does  it 

consist            955 

Nerve,  what  is  the  constitution  of  a  956 

Nervous  fluid,  what  is  the 957 

Nerves,  how  many  kinds  are  there  958 

Nerves  of  motion,  what  are  they  ...  959 

Nerves  of  sensation,  what  are  they  960 

Nerves  of  special  sense,  what  are  ...  961 

Nerves  of  sympathy,  what  are  the  962 
Nights,  why  are  they  usually  cold 

when  clear        ...  411 

Nitrogen,  what  is  it     33 

Nitrogen,  where  is  it  found           ...  34 

Nitrogen,  could  animals  live  in  it  37 
Nitrogen,  is  it  taken  into  the  blood 

from  the  air             ...        ...        ...  40 

Nitrogen,  will  it  burn           44 

Nitrogen,   what    becomes  of   that 

which  is  inhaled     ...        ...        ...  46 

Nitrogen,   where    does    it   find    a 

fresh  supply  of  oxygen     47 

Nitrous  oxyde,  why  does  it  excite 

the  system     38 

Non-conductors  of  heat,  what  sub- 
stances are  Ill 

Nostrils,  why    are    they   directed 

downwards 994 

LESSON  LII. 
Nose,  why  is  it  placed  over  the 

mouth 995 

Nutmegs,  where  are  they  produced  1232 

Ocean,  how  is  it  heated        233 

Oils  and  fats,  what  are  vegetable  ...  1204 

Oils  and  fats,  animal,  why  are  they 
found  most  abundantly  in  cold 
climates  '  ...  120J 

Oils  and  fats,  vegetable,  why  are 
they  found  most  abundantly  in 
hot  countries  120? 

Opium,  what  is  it       1258 

Ostriches,  why  have  they  small 
wings 1031 

Ostriches,  why  are  their  feathers 
soft  and  downy  ...  ...  ...  1032 

Otters,  seals,  &c.,  why  have  they 
web-feet  1062 

Owls,  why  does  their  screeching 
denote  change  of  weather  ...1111 

Owls,  why  does  their  moping  fore- 
tell death  1112 

Oxen,  sheep,  deer,  &c.,  why  do 
they  ruminate  1088 

Oxen,  and  other  quadrupeds,  why 
have  they  a  tough  elastic  lig- 
ament in  their  necks  1138 

Oxygen,  why  is  it  necessary  to  life        5 

Oxygen,  what  is  its  union  with 
carbon  called  7 


QUESTIONS    FORSJING    A    COMPLKTE    INDEX. 


LESSON  LIII. 

Oxygen,  whnt  is  it     25 

Oxygen  of  the  air,  why  does  it  not 
take  fire  28 

Oxysjen,  why  do  we  know  that  it 
will  not  burn  of  itself  29 

Oxygen,  why  do  we  know  that  it  is 
necessary  to  our  existence  ...  30 

Oxygen,  where  is  it  found  " 31 

Oxygen,  why  is  it  mixed  with  ni- 
trogen in  the  air  ...  ...  ...  32 

Oxygen  of  water,  why  does  it  not 
support  fire 307 

Oxygen,  in  what  w«y  does  man 
use  it 757 

Ozone,  what  is  it        ...    630 

Ozone,  why  do  we  know  that  elec- 
tricity produces  it  ...  ...  ...  631 

Ozone,  what  are  the  properties  of    632 

Paleness,  what  is  the  cause  of       ...    914 

Palms,  what  are  their  characteris- 
tics   1221 

Paper  held  over  a  candle-flame, 
why  does  it  become  scorched  ...  244 

Paper  held  below  a  candle-flame, 
why  does  it  scarcely  become 
warm 245 

Paper,  why  does  it  more  readily 
ignite  than  wood  ...  ...  ...  29 1 

Paper,  why,  if  it  is  laid  flat  upon 
the  fire,  will  it  "  char"  before  it 
ignites  304 

LESSON  LIV. 

Paper  on  a  fire,  why  will  it  ignite 
when  you  send  a  puff  of  air  to 
it  305 

Parachutes,  why  do  they  fall  grad- 
ually to  the  ground  834 

PaiTots,  &.C.,  why  have  they  crook- 
ed bills  1047 

Parrots,  why  can  they  move  their 
upper  as  well  as  their  lower 
beak  1048 

Particles  of  matter,  why  do  they 
draw  near  each  other  776 

Particles  of  matter,  why  will  they 
attach  themselves  to  sealing-wax 
excited  by  friction  779 

Pea  and  pin,  why  do  they  rotate 
upon  a  jet  of  air  blown  through 
a  tobacco-pipe  ...  ...  ...  845 

Peg-top,  why  does  it  make  less 
noise  than  a  hurnming-top  ...  811 

Pog-top,  why  does  it  sometimes 
hum,  arid  at  other  times  not  ...  812 

Pelican,  why  has  it  a  large  pouch 
uuder  its  bill  1093 

Pepper,  where  is  it  produced        ...  1229 

Pt  r-piration,  why  does  it  cool  the 
body  173 

Perspire,  why  do  we  ...        ...  1009 

Perspiration,  how  is  it  formed      ...  1010 

Perspiration,  what  is  insensible    ...  1011 

Perspiration,  what  is  sensible       ...  1012 


LESSON  LV. 

Phosphorous,  why  does  it  look  lu 
minous  94 

Phosphorous,  does  it  ignite  sponta- 
neously when  placed  upon  a  hot 
surface  314 

Phosphorous,  why  does  it  ignite 
when  sprinkled  with  powdered 
charcoal  315 

Photographic  pictures,  how  does 
light  produce  them  55G 

Photographic  rooms,  why  are  they 
glazed  with  blue  glass  557 

Pith-tumblers,  why  do  they  always 
pitch  on  one  end  ...  ...  ...  868 

Planets,  how  can  man  weigh  them    785 

Planets,  how  can  man  measure 
their  distances  786 

Plants,  do  they  absorb  heat  ...     225 

Plants,  how  do  we  know  that  they 
absorb  heat 226 

Plants,  why  do  screens  prevent 
frost  from  killing  them  400 

Plants,  why,  if  we  cut  across  their 
steins,  do  we  see  tubes  arranged 
in  parallel  lines  1159 

Plants,  why  do  some  droop  and 
turn  to  the  earth  after  sunset  ...  1167 

Plants,  why  are  the  seeds  of 
many  enclosed  in  rich  juice  or 
pulp 1172 

Plants,  why  have  some  tough  curly 
tendrils  1173 

LESSON  LVI. 

Plants,  why  have  peas  tendrils,  and 
beans  none  1174 

Plants,  why  have  grasses,  &c.,  joints 
or  knots  in  their  stalks  1176 

Plants,  what  is  the  circulation  of 
sap  in 1179 

Plants,  why  does  their  sap  ascend 
and  descend 1180 

Plants,  why  do  they  suffer  from 
the  smoke  of  cities  1188 

Plants,  why  is  it  understood  that 
some  of  them  feel 1141 

Plants,  why  is  it  understood  that 
some  of  them  move  114? 

Plants,  of  what  elementary  sub- 
stances are  they  composed  ...  1143 

Plants,  whence  do  they  derive  their 
elementary  substances  1144 

Plants,  how  do  they  obtain  carbon  1145 

Plants,  how  do  they  obtain  oxygen  1146 

Plants,  their  decomposition  ot  gases 
by  day  and  by  night  1147 

Plants,  how  do  they  obtain  hydro- 
gen ...  , 1147 

Plants,  how  do  they  obtain  nitrogen  1148 

Plants,  how  do  they  apply  their  ele- 
ments to  the  formation  of  their 
structures  1149 

Plants,  how  is  their  nutritive  sap 
applied  to  their  growth  and 
nourishment 1150 


QUESTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLETE    INDEX. 


XXi 


LESSON  LVIL 

Plants,  why  dp  they  grow 1154 

Plants,  why  if  we  break  the  stein 
of  a  hyacinth  do  we  see  a  glu- 
tinous fluid  <;xude 1155 

Plants,  why  if  we  split  the  petal  of 
n  tulip  do  we  see  cells  containing 
ditf'-ront  colouring  matters  ...  1156 

Plants,  why  if  we  break  a  pea-shell 
across  do  we  find  a  transparent 
membrane  1157 

Plants,  why  if  we  cut  through  H 
cabbage-stump  do  we  find  a  tough 
coating  enveloping  a  cellular  sub- 
stance   1158 

Plants,  why  are  their  seeds  formed 
within  the  corollas  of  flowers  ...  1168 

Plants,  why  does  the  flower  of  the 
poppy  turn  down  during  the 
early  formation  of  seed 1169 

Plants,  why  have  those  of  the  pea- 
tribe  a  folding  blossom  1170 

Plants,  why  are  leal-buds  enclosed 
in  scales  which  fall  off  as  the 
leaves  open 1171 

Plants,  what  is  meant  by  "  t-ppcies" 
of  1209 

Plants,  what  is  meant  by  "  genus" 
of  1210 

Plants,  progressive  discovery  of 
new  species 1211 

Plants,  what  are  the  three  great 
classes  of  1212 

LESSON  LV1II. 

Plants,  what  are  the  characteristics 
of  exogenous  ...  1213 

Plants,  what  are  the  "'•ft.'acteristics 
of  cryptogamug  1216 

Plants,  what  are  the  effects  of  di- 
verse climates  upon  1242 

Plants,  what  are  the  effects  of  alti- 
tude upon  mountains  1243 

Plants,  what  agencies  influence 
their  geographical  distribution  ...  1250 

Plants,  what  are  the  chief  facts 
connected  with  the  distribution 
of  by  man  1251 

Plants,  why  are  herbaceous  less 
solid  than  woody  1265 

Plants,  why  are  the  stalks  of  herba- 
ceous generally  cylindrical  ...  1266 

Plants,  what  are  the  stomata  of    ...  1267 

Plants,  why  are  their  stomata  gen- 
erally on  the  underside  of  their 
leaves 1268 

P'.ants,  why  have  they  pith  in  their 
centres  1269 

Porter,  why  does  bottled  produce 
large  volumes  of  froth  801 

Pulse,  why  do  we  feel  it  beat        ...    900 

Quadrupeds,  geographical  distri- 
bution of  1331 

Quicksilver,  why  does  it  reflect 
light  from  mirrors 513 


LESSON  LIX. 
Radiation,  why  does  scratching  a 

bright  metal  surface  increase~its 

powers  of      199 

Radiation    of   heat,    what   benefits 

arise  from  it 415 

Radiation  of  light,  what  is  it         ...    503 
Radiation,   do    all   bodies    radiate 

light      504 

Rain,  what  is  it  416 

Rain,  does  it  ever  occur  without 

clouds 417 

Rain-drops,  why  are  they  some- 
times large,  and  at  other  times 

small     418 

Rains,   at  what   seasons  are  they 

most  prevalent        419 

Rainy  days,  in  what  months  of  the 

year  are  they  most  frequent      ...    420 
Rainy  days,  why  are  there  more 

from  September  to  March          ...     421 
Rain,  in  what  part  of  the  world 

does  the  greatest  quantity  fall    ...     422 
,Ritin,  in  what  part  of  the  world  do 

the  heaviest  rains  fall        423 

Rain,  in   what  part  of  the  world 

does  the  least  rain  fall       424 

Rainy  days,  how  many  are  there  in 

a  year 425 

Rain,  in  what  part  of  England  does 

the  greatest  quantity  fall 426 

Rains,  why  do  the  heaviest  occur 

in  hot  countries       427 

LESSON  LX. 

Rain,  why  does  the  greatest  quan- 
tity fall  at  the  equator  428 

Rain,  why  are  some  parts  of  the 
earth  without  it  429 

Rain,  why  does  it  purify  the 
air  433 

Rainy  localities,  why  are  mountain- 
ous countries  more  rainy  than 
flat  ones  434 

Rain,  why  does  more  fall  by  night 
than  by  day 435 

Rain,  why  do  bunches  of  dried  sea- 
weed indicate  its  coming  ...  ...  436 

Rain,  why  do  weather-toys  foretell 
its  coming  437 

Rain,  the  Capuchin  toy;  myste- 
rious walk  of  a  wooden  horse  ...  438 

Rain,  why  does  ladies'  hair  drop 
out  of  curl  as  rain  approaches  ...  438 

Rain,  why  is  it  said  to  be  coming, 
when  the  mountains  are  "  put- 
ting on  their  night-caps" 439 

Rainbow,  what  causes  a       486 

Rainbow,  why  does  it  exhibit  col- 
ours ...  487 

Rainbows,  why  are  there  some- 
times two  488 

Rainbows,  why  are  the  columns  of 
the  secondary  bow,  arranged  in 
the  reverse  order  of  those  of  the 
primary  48? 


xxii 


QUESTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLETE    INDEX. 


LESSON  LXI. 

Rainbow  colours,  why  do  glass 
lustres  and  chandeliers  exhibit 

them     498 

Rainbows,  why  are  the  colours  of 
the  secondary  bow  fainter  than 

those  of  the  primary        491 

Ratnbow,  what  is  a  lunar    492 

Rainbow,  why  is  a  lunar  bow  faint- 
er than  the  solar  493 

Rainbow,  why  is  one  in  the  morn- 

ing  the  shepherd's  warning       ...    538 
Rainbow,  why  is  one  at  night  the 

shepherd's  delight 539 

Refraction  of  light,  what  is  it         ...     472 
Refraction  and  reflection  of  light, 

what  is  the  difference        502 

Reflections,  why  are  they  reversed    490 
Reflection,  why  do  black  bodies  re- 

fiVct  any  light  505 

Reflection,  why  does  a  window- 
pane  appear  to  reflect  better  by 

night  than  by  day 516 

Reflection,  what  is  the  line  of       ...    520 
Reflection,  what  is  the  angle  of    ...    522 

Repulsion,  what  is  it  792 

Respiration,   why   does  the  chest 

expand  when  we  breathe  ...    889 

Respiration,  how  does  blood  com- 
municate with  the  air  in  the 

lungs '      ...     890 

Rest,  why  does  it  invigorate  us    ...  1018 

Rice,  where  is  it  cultivated 1219 

Rosewood,  what  is  it  1191 

LESSON  LXII. 

Saliva,  why  does  saliva  enter  the 
mouth  while  we  are  eating  ...  872 

Sea,  why  is  it  salt        764 

Sea,  what  is  the  estimated  amount 
of  salt  in  the ...  765 

Sea,  what  is  the  depth  of  the        ...    766 

Sea-gulls,  why  are  they  numerous 
in  fine  weather  1119 

Sen-gulls,  why  do  they  fly  over  the 
land  on  the  approach  of  stormy 
weather  1120 

Sea-crow,  why  is  its  lower  bill 
longer  than  the  upper  1135 

Sealing-wax,  why  does  rubbing  it 
attract  to  it  small  particles  of 
matter 565 

See,  why  do  we          963 

Seeds,  why  are  they  generally  en- 
veloped in  hard  cases  ...  ...  1152 

Seeds,  why  do  they  throw  out  roots 
before  they  form  leaves 1153 

Seeds,  why  does  the  leaf-germ 
come  up  to  the  light  and  the 
root-germ  penetrate  the  earth  ...  1285 

Seeds,  why  are  they  indigestible  ...  1286 

Soe-saw,  why  may  a  little  boy  bal- 
ance a  larger  boy  , 863 

See-saw,  why  dot's  the  littlii  boy 
sink  to  the  «'anh,  \vhpii  the  larger 
buy  kicks  tlie  ground  801 


LESSON  LXIII. 
See-saw,  why  may  the  little  boy 

keep  the  larger    one  up,  when 

once  he  is  up  .........    864 

Shadows,  what  is  the  cause  of      ...    508 
Shadows,  why  is  there  some  light 

where  shadows  fall  ......    510 

Shadows,  why  do  they  lengthen  as 

the  sun  goes  down  .........    526 

Shuttle-cock,   why  does   it  travel 

slowly  through  the  air      ......    836 

Shuttle-cock,  why  do  we  hear  a 

noise  when  we  strike  it  with  the 

battledore      ............    837 

Sight,  why  are  two  persons  able  to 

see  each  other         .........    551 

Sight,  why  can  we  see  so  many 

upon  the  small  retina       ......    966 

Sight,  why  are  we  able  to  see  at 

long  or  short  distances     ......    974 

Sigh,  why  do  we        .........  1025 

Silica,  what  is  it         .........  1260 

Silk,  what  is  it  ............  1200 

Skin,  why  does  a  chill  of  the  produce 

inflammatory  action  in  the  lungs  1014 
Sky,  what  is  it  ............     5:50 

Sky,  why  is  it  red  at  sunset  ...    532 

Sleet,  what  is  it  .........     447 

Sleep,  what  is  it          .........  1019 

Smell,  why  do  wfl      .........     992 

Smoke,  what  is  it        .........     102 

Smoke,  why  is  there  so  little  when 

the  fire  is  red  ...        ......    105 

Smoke,  what  is  it        .........    289 

LESSON  LXIV. 
Smoke,   why  do    fresh    coals    in- 

crease the  quantity  of      ...... 

Smoke,  why  does  it  issue  in  folds 

and  curls        ............ 

Smoke,  why  does  it  ascend  in  mild 

and  fine  weather     ......... 

Snails,  why  can   they  move  in  an 

inverted  position     ...         ...        ... 

Snails,  where  do  they  obtain  their 

shfills   ................ 

Snails,  why  do  their  shells  grow  ... 
Snails,  why  are  their  shells  spiral 
Snails,  why  have  they  four  tenta- 

cula  attached  to  their  heads       ... 
Snails,  why  are  they  able  to  move 

without  feet  ......... 

Snails,  why  do  we  see  none  in  the 

wintertime  ...  ...... 

Snails,  why  can  they  live  in  sealed 


Sneeze,  why  do  we     ......... 

Snipes  and  woodcocks,  why  have 

they  long,  tapering  bills    ...... 

Snore,  why  do  we      ......... 

Snow,  why  does  it  keep  the  earth 

warm    ............... 

Snow,  why  is  it  a  good  non-con- 

ductor of  heat          ...        ...... 

Snnw,  what  is  it          .......  .. 

Snow,  why  is  it  white  ..... 


2P1 
632 
689 
666 

1-506 
1307 
1308 

1309 
13JQ 
13H 

1312 
1024 

1042 
1028 

ICO 

]f>2 
4^0 
41; 


QUESTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLETE    INDEX. 


xxffl 


LESSON  LXV. 

Snow,  why  is  it  warm,  though 
white  garments  are  cool 442 

Snow,  why  is  it  always  on  the  tops 
of  high  mountains  ...  ...  443 

Snow-line,  what  is  meant  by  the  ...    445 

Snow,  what  is  red      446 

So •} a- water,  why  does  it  effer- 
vesce   802 

Soils,  why  are  clayey  unfavourable 
to  vfge-tation  ...  ...  ...  1160 

Soils,  why  are  sandy  unfavourable 
to  vegetation  1162 

Soils,  why  are  chalk  unfavourable 
to  vegetation  1162 

Soils,  why  are  mixed  favourable  to 
vegetation  1163 

Soils,  why  do  farmers  manure 
their  land  1165 

Soot,  why  should  it  be  prevented 
from  accumulating  at  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  of  sauce-pans  ...  205 

Soot,  what  is  it  290 

Sound,  what  is  it        716 

Sounds,  what  causes  the  air  to  pro- 
duce   717 

Sounds,  how  do  we  know  that  they 
are  produced  by  vibrations  ...  718 

Sounds,  how  do  we  know  that 
without  air  there  would  be  none  719 

Sounds,  how  are  the  vibrations  of 
sonorous  bodies  imparted  to  the 
air  720 

LESSON  LXVI. 

Sounds,  how  rapidly  do  the  vibra- 
tions of  travel  721 

Sounds,  do  all  sounds  travel  at  the 
same  rate  t  722 

Sounds,  why  are  bells  nnd  glasses 
stopped  from  ringing  by  "touch- 
ing them  with  the  finger 723 

Sounds,  why  does  a  cracked  bell 
give  discordant  724 

Sounds,  why  do  we  see  the  flash  of 
a  gun  before  we  hear  the  report  725 

Sound,  why  does  the  inarching  of 
long  ranks  of  soldiers  appear  to 
be  irregular 726 

Sound.*,  what  are  the  numbers  of 
vibrations  that  produce  various  727 

Sounds,   why    does   the   length    of 
a  wire  or  string   influence  the 
sounds  it  produces 728 

Sound,  why  does  the  tension  of  a 
wi  re  or  string  affect  its  vibrations  729 

S.iund,  why  are  some  notes  low 
ii»d  solemn,  and  others  high  and 
quick 730 

Sound,  why  can  our  voices  be 
heard  at  a  creator  distance  when 
we  speak  through  tubes  ...  ...  731 

Sound,  is  air  a  good  conductor    ...    732 

S'lunds,  why  can  we  hear  them  at 
a  greater  distance  on  water  than 
on  land  ...  ...  .,  733 


LESSON  LXV1I. 

Sound,  why  do  sea-shells  give  a 
murmuring  noise  when  held  to 
the  ear  734 

Sound,  why  can  people  in  the  arc- 
tic regions  converse  when  more 
than  a  mile  apart  735 

Sounds,  why  do  savages  lay  their 
heads  upon  the  earth  to  catch 
sounds  736 

Sounds,  why  can  church  clocks  be 
heard  striking  more  plainly  at 
some  times  than  at  others  ...  737 

Sound,  why  may  the  scratching  of 
a  pin  at  one  end  of  a  long  pole 
be  heard  at  the  opposite  ex- 
tiemly 738 

Sound,  why  is  the  hearing  of  deaf 
persons  assisted  by  ear-trumpets  739 

Sounding-boards,  why  are  they 
used  to  improve  the  hearing  of 
congregations  740 

Sounds,  why,  when  we  are  walk- 
ing under  arches  or  tunnels,  do 
our  voices  appear  louder  ...    747 

Spark,  what  causes  it  when  a 
horse's  shoe  strikes  against  a 
stone  340 

Specific  gravity,  what  is  it 789 

Spiders,  why  have  they  the  power 
of  spinning  webs  ...  ...  ...  1082 

Spider*,why  may  fine  weather  be  ex- 
pect-d  when  they  build  their  webs  1108 

LESSON  LXV1II. 

Spiders,  wby  may  wet  weather  be 
expected  when  they  hide  ...  1109 

Spiders,  why  may  wet  weather  be 
expected  when  they  break  off 
their  webs  and  remove  them  ...  1113 

Spider,  why,  if  the  webs  of  the 
gossamer  fly  about  in  autumn, 
may  east  winds  be  expected  ...  1124 

Spiders,  gossamer,  why  can  they 
float  through  the  air  ...  ...  1125 

Spinal  cord,  what  is  the       ...        ,..     952 

Spinal  cord,  why  is  it  placed  in  the 
back-bone  ... 953 

Spinal-cord,  how  do  the  branches 
pass  out  from  it  954 

Spontaneous  combustion,  what  sub- 
stances are  liable  to  it  317 

Spontaneous  combustion,  has  it 
ever  occurred  in  living  bodies  ...  319 

Spontaneous  combustion,  why  doea 
it  occur  in  the  case  of  the  drunk- 
ard   320 

Spoon-bill,  why  has  it  a  long  ex- 
panded bill,  lined  with  sharp, 
muscular  points  1045 

Spoon-bill,  why  has  it  long  legs    ...  1046 

Squint,  why  do  some  people         ...    967 

Starch,  what  is  it        1202 

Star-lit  nights,  why  are  they  usually 
colder  than  cloudy  nights  ...  350 

Stars,  why  do  they  twinkle  ...    484 


QUESTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLKTK    IN  DUX. 


LESSON  LXIX. 
Stars,   why   does    their  twinkling 

foretell  had  weather          485 

Steam,  why  dons  it  issue  from  the 

spout  of  a  kettle      750 

Storms,  what  is  the  cause  of         ...     676 
Storms,   why  do  the  mo»t  vu.lent 

occur  in  and  near  the  tropics     ...     677 
Straw,  why   is   it  frequently  used 

for  manure 1264 

"  Sucker,1'  why  does  it  raise  a  stone    8fiO 

Sugar,  what  is  it         1197 

Sugar-cane,  where  is  it  cultivated...  1226 
Sun,   what  is  its  distance  from  the 

earth     452 

Sun,  what  is  the         ...        455 

Sun,  from  what  does  its  luminosity 

arise 456 

Sun  and  moon,  why  do  they  appear 

smaller  when  near  the  meridian, 

than  when  near  the  horizon      ...    525 
Sun,  why  do  we  see  it  before  sun- 
rise, and  after  sunset        482 

Sun,  what  is  the  magnitude  of  the    767 
Suppers,     why     do     they     cause 

dreams  1021 

Swallows,  why  may  wet  weather 

be  expected  when  they  fly  low    1104 
Syringe,  why  does  pressing  in  the 

handle  force  out  a  jet  of  water...    856 
Syringe,  why  will  not  the  water 

run    out,    unless    the    handle   is 

pressed  in      857 

LESSON  LXX. 

Syringe,  why  will  the  water  leak 
out,  but  not  run  ...  858 

Syringe,  why  cannot  the  handle 
be  pressed  in,  if  a  finger  is  kept 
on  the  orifice  8-59 

Tannin,  what  is  it       1257 

Taste,  why  do  we       996 

Taste,  why  are  some  substances 
sweet,  others  sour,  <fec 997 

Taste,  why  is  it  most  powerful  af- 
ter substances  have  been  a  little 
while  in  the  mouth  998 

Taste,  why  if  we  put  out  the  tongue 
and  touch  it  wiih  a  nub  of  sugar, 
shall  we  perceive  no  tastn  ...  999 

Taste,  why  when  we  draw  in  the 
tongue  do  we  then  perceive  the 
taste  of  the  sugnr 1000 

Taste,  through  what  nerves  are 
we.  made  sensible  of  the  con- 
tact of  sugar  with  the  tip  of  the 
tongue 1001 

Taste,  why  do  connoisseurs  of 
wines  hold  wine  in  their  mouths 
a  few  seconds  when  'judging  of  it  1002 

Taste,  why  do  they  also  pass  the 
fumes  of  the  wine  through  their 
nostrils  „  ...  1003 

Tea-pot,  why  does  a  bright  metal 
one  produce  better  tea  than  a 
black  earthenware  ...  ..  ...  200 


LESSON  LXX  I. 

Ten-pot,  if  the  earthenware  one 
were,  set  hy  the.  fire,  why  would 
it  then  make  the  best  tea  ...  Sfll 

Tun,  what  is  it 1192 

Tea.  win-re  is  it  cultivated 1225 

Tears,  what  is  the  cause  of 877 

Temperature,  why  do  some  arti- 
cles feel  colder  than  others        ...     138 
Temperature,    why    does    it    feel 
warmer    alter    a  frost  has    set 

in  163 

Tendons,  what  are  they       ...        ...    939 

Tendons,  why  are   they    used    to 

attnch  the  muscles  to  the  bones    940 
Tenerinv,  wViat  are  the   botanical 
regions  of  the  Peak  of      ...        ...  1241 

Thaumatrope,  why  do  the  figures 
on  appear  to  dance  ...         ...     869 

Thaw,  why  is  it  colder  when  a 

thaw  takes  place    164 

Thermometer,  whfit  is  the 709 

Thermometer,  wiry  does  it  indicate 

degrees  of  heat        710 

Thermometer,  why  are  there  Reau- 
mur's and  Fahrenheit's    ...        ...    711 

Thermometer  and  barometer,  what 

is  the  difference       712 

Thermometer,  in  what  season  of 
the  year  does  it  vary  most  ...  715 

Thunder,  what  is  it    614 

Thunder-peal,  why  is  it  sometimes 
loud  and  continuous  ...  ...  616 

LESSON  LXXII. 

Thunder-peal,  why  it  sometimes 
broken  and  unequal  617 

Thunder-peal,  why  is  it  sometimes 
a  low.  grumbling  noise  618 

Thunder-peal,  why  does  it  some- 
times follow  immediately  after 
the  flash  of  lightning  620 

Thunder,  through  what  distance 
will  the  soundlravel  621 

Thunderbolt,  what  is  a         628 

Tinder-box,  the  history  of  a          ...    340 

Toasting-fork,  why  has  it  a  wood- 
en handle  124 

Tops,  why  do  they  stand  erect 
while  they  spin,  bnt  fall  when 
they  stop  814 

Tops,  why  do  they  "  sleep"  ...    816 

Tops,  why  do  they  cease  to 
spin  817 

Touch,  in  what  part  of  the  body  is 
the  sense  of  most  perfect  ...  1005 

Toxicologists,  what  are  they         ...       61 

Trap  and  ball,  why  is  the  ball  pro- 
pelled upward,  when  the  trig- 
ger is  struck 866 

Trees,  what  arc  the  estimated  nges 
of 1214 

Trees,  what  are  the  northern  lim- 
it* of  1237 

Trees,  why  are  they  cuvt  red  with 
bark  ...  ,..  „  .,  .,.  1270 


QUESTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLETE    INDEX. 


XXV 


LESSON  LXXIII. 

Trees,  why  have  those  with  large 
trunks  a  great  number  of  leafy 
branches  ,  ...  1274 

Trees,  why  have  poplars  compara- 
tively few  leaves  1275 

Trees,  why  had  the  mammoth  com- 
paratively few  leaves  1276 

Trees,  why  have  oaks  an  abun- 
dance of  leaves  1277 

Trees,  why  are  their  trunks  gen- 
erally round  1278 

Twilight,  what  is  the  cause  of      ...    482 

Vacuum,  what  is  a    649 

Vacuum,  is  it  possible  to  obtain  a 
perfect  650 

Vegetables,  have  they  any  heat     ...       90 

Vegetable  structures,  of  what  do 
they  consist 1151 

Vegetables,  why  do  farmers  sow 
different  crops  in  rotation  ...  1164 

Vegetables,  why  are  the  hearts  of 
cabbages,  &c.,  pale  yellow  ...  1182 

Vegetable  productions,  why  are 
they  so  widely  diffused  ...  ...  1189 

Vegetable  eaters,  why  do  they  feed 
so  continually  1091 

Vegetation,  geographical  distribu- 
tion of 1208 

Vegetation,  what  are  the  character- 
istics of  tropical  1218 

Vegetation,  what  are  the  changes 
in  on  quitting  the  tropics.  ...  1232 

LESSON  LXX1V. 

Vegetation,  what  are  the  character-' 
istics  of,  upon  approaching  the 
polar  zones 1234 

Vegetation,  what  are  the  charac- 
teristics of  mountain  1238 

Vines,  where  are  their  favourable 
climates  ,.,  1233 

Walking,  why  does  it  make  us 
warmer  ., 26 

Water,  what  becomes  of  that 
formed  by  combustion  ...  ...  58 

Water,  is  it  a  good  or  bad  conduc- 
tor of  heat  151 

Water,  why  does  it  extinguish  fire    306 

Water,  why,  when  a  blacksmith 
thrusts  a  hot  iron  into  a  tank,  do 
we  perceive  a  peculiar  smell  ...  309 

Water,  why  does  it  freeze 324 

Water,  why  does  it  become  steam    326 

Water,  how  many  degrees  of  lat- 
ent heat  are  hidden  in  its  several 
states 327 

Water,  why  does  it  expand  when 
freezing,  while  bodies  generally 
contract  with  cold  and  expand 
with  heat  341 

•Water,  why  does  it  never  freeze 
to  a  great  depth  342 

Water,  how  much  deeper  is  it  than 
it  appears  to  be  ...  .  480 

2 


LESSON  LXXV. 

Water,  why  has  the  exceptional 
law,  by  which  it  expands  when 
free/in?,  been  ordained 343 

Water,  why  can  we  seldom  suc- 
ceed in  the  first  attempt  to  touch 
anything  lying  at  tho  bottom  of  481 

Water,  what  causes  it  to  flow  from 
a  pump  651 

Water,  why  does  it  run  through  a 
syphon  655 

Water,  what  is  it        748 

Water,  why  does  it  become  solid 
when  it  freezes  751 

Water,  why  does  it  boil       753 

Water,  what  proportion  of  the 
earth's  surface  is  covered  by  it  554 

Water,  why  does  it  dissolve  sub- 
stances  758 

Water,  why  does  hot  dissolve  more 
readily  than  cold  759 

Water,  why  is  it  sometimes  hard    7fiO 

Water,  why  is  rain-water  soft       ...     761 

Water,  why  is  it  difficult  to  wash 
in  hard  763 

Waters,  why  are  some  impreg- 
nated with  mineral  matters  ...  767 

Water,  why  does  stagnant  become 
putrid 769 

Water,  is  there  danger  attending 
drinking  it  on  account  of  animal- 
cules   770 

Water,  what  are  the  means  by 
which  it  may  be  purified 771 

LESSON  LXXVI. 

Water,  what  is  the  pressure  of     ...    775 

Water,  why  will  a  drop  upon  the 
blade  of  a  knife  leave  a  dark  spot  777 

Water,  why  does  it  roll  in  agitated 
globules  when  dropped  upon  hot 
iron  796 

Water,  why  does  oil  float  upon  it...     797 

Water,  why  is  spring  fresh  and  in- 
vigorating    803 

Water,  why  is  boiled  flat  and  in- 
sipid  804 

Weather,  why  does  a  yellow  sun- 
set foretell  wet  534 

Weather,  why  does  a  red  sunset 
foretell  fine 535 

Weather,  why  does  a  red  sunrise 
foretell  wet 536 

Weather,  why  does  a  grey  sunrise 
foretell  dry 537 

Weather,  barometrical  indications 
of  , 708 

Whales,  why  have  they  a  large  de- 
velopment of  oily  matter  about 
their  heads  1058 

Whale,  why  has  it  feathery  bones 
extending  from  its  jaws 1095 

Whales,  why  are  their  eyes  pro- 
vided with  very  thick  coats  ...  1131 

Wheat,  why  do  the  ears  stand  up 
by  day  and  turn  down  by  night..  1175 

Wheat,  what  is  it        ... 1198 


xxvi 


QUESTIONS    FORMING    A    COMPLETE    INDEX. 


LESSON  LXXVII. 

Wheat,  what  is  the  northern  limit  of  1235 
Wheat,  why  is  silica  diffused  over 

its  stem           1261 

Wheat-crops,  why  do  they  greatly 

exhaust  the  soil       1263 

Whirlwinds,  what  are  they           ...  678 

Why  do  we  see           963 

Why  do  we  wink       975 

Why  do  we  weep       977 

Why  do  we  hear        : 983 

Why  do  we  taste        986 

Why  do  we  smell       992 

Why  do  we  feel         1004 

Why  do  we  sleep       1019 

Why  do  we  dream    1020 

Why  do  suppers  produce  dream- 
ing       ...        ...        1021 

Why  do  we  yawn       1022 

Why  do  we  coueh     1023 

Why  do  we  sneeze     1024 

Why  do  we  sigh 1025 

Why  do  we  laugh       1026 

Why  do  we  hiccough           1027 

Why  do  we  snore      1028 

Why  do  we  feel  hungry      1337 

Why  do  we  feel  thirsty        1338 

Wick  of  a  candlo,  why  does  it  turn 

Hack  as  it  burns      225 

Wick  of  a  candle,  why  is  there  a 

ppark  generally  at  the  end  of  it ...  256 

Will-o'-the-wisp,  what  is  it 318 

Winds,  what  is  the  cause  of          ...  234 

Winds,  why  are  east  usually  dry  ...  384 

Winds,  why  are  west  usually  wet...  385 
Winds,  why  are  north  usually  cold 

and  dry          386 


LESSON  LXXVIII. 

Winds,  why  are  south  warm  and 
rainy  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  387 

Wind,  what  is  it         660 

Winds,  what  are  the  velocities  of ...     667 

Winds,  what  are  trade         668 

Winds,  what  is  the  cause  of  trade    669 

Winds,  why  do  trade  winds  blow 
from  east  to  west  670 

Winds,  what  determines  the  char- 
acter of  674 

Wind-mills,  why  do  their  wings 
turn  round  690 

Windows,  why  do  they  reflect  the 
sun's  rays  in  the  evening  ...  523 

Windows,  why  do  they  not  reflect 
the  sun's  rays  at  noon  524 

Wood,  why  does  decayed  look 
luminous  - 95 

Wood,  burning  at  one  end,  why 
does  it  not  feel  hot  at  the  other  118 

Wood,  why  is  it  a  bad  conductor 
of  heat  119 

Wood  that  is  grern,  why  does  it 
hiss  and  steam  when  burning  ...  285 

Wood,  why  does  it  ignite  less  read- 
ily than  paper  297 

Woodcocks  and  snipes,  why  have 
they  nerves  running  down  to  the 
tip  of  their  bills  104? 

Woodpeckers,  why  do  they  "  tap'' 
at  old  trees 1066 

Woollens,  why  are  they  worn  in 
winter 168 

Wool,  what  is  it          1201 

Yawn,  why  do  we      1026 

Zoological  geography  133ft 


looked  down  from  heaven  upon  the  children  of  men,  to  see  ir  mere 
were  any  that  did  understand  that  did  see  God."— PSALM  XJIL 


THE    REASON    WHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

1.  Why  should  we  seek  knowledge? 

Because  it  assists  us  to  comprehend  the  goodness  and  power  of 
God. 

And  it  gives  us  power  over  the  circumstances  and  associations 
by  which  we  are  surrounded :  the  proper  exercise  of  this  power 
will  greatly  promote  our  happiness. 

2.  Why  does  the  possession  of  knowledge   enable  us   to 
exercise  power  over  surrounding  circumstances  ?  . 

Knowle<lge  enables  us  to  understand  that,  in  order  to  live  healthily, 
we  require  to  breathe  fresh  and  pure  air.  It  also  tells  us  that  animal 
and  vegetable  substances*  undergoing  decay,  poison  the  air,  though 
we  may  not  be  able  to  see,  or  to  smell,  or  otherwise  discover  the 
existence  of  such  poison.  Knowing  this,  we  become  careful  to 
remove  from  our  presence  all  such  matters  as  would  tend  to  corrupt 
the  atmosphere.  This  is  only  one  of  the  countless  instances  in 
which  knowledge  gives  us  power  over  surrounding  circumstances. 

3.  Name  some  other  instances  in  which  knowledge  gives  us 
pother. 

Knowledge  of  Geography  and  of  Navigation  enables  the  mariner 
to  guide  his  ship  across  the  trackless  deep,  and  to  reach  the  sought- 
for  port,  though  he  had  never  before  been  on  its  shores. 

Knowledge  of  Chemistry  enables  us  to  separate  or  to  combine  the 
various  substances  found  in  nature.  Thus  we  obtain  useful  and 


28  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


"<^ive  instruction  to  a  wise  man,  and  he  will  be  yet  wiser;  teach  a  mat  uiwi, 
*>  rt*  J  '  *£  yn<l  he  will  increase  in  learning."— PEOVERBS  IX. 

precious  metajs  'from  what  at  first  appeared  to  be  useless  stones ; 
tt angpareKt'gl'as's  from  pebbles,  through  which  no  light  could  pass  ; 
soap  from  oily  substances ;  and  gas  from  solid  bodies. 

Knowledge  of  .Medicine  enables  the  physician  to  overcome  the 
ravages  of  disease,  and  to  save  suffering  patients  from  sinking 
prematurely  to  the  grave. 

Knowledge  of  Anatomy  and  of  Surgery  enables  the  sujgeon  to 
bind  up  dangerous  fractures  and  wounds,  and  to  remove,  even  from 
the  internal  parts  of  bodies,  ulcers  and  diseased  formations  that 
would  otherwise  be  fatal  to  life. 

Knowledge  of  Mechanics  enables  man  to  increase  his  power  by 
the  construction  of  machines.  The  steam-ship  crossing  the  ocean 
in  opposition  to  wind  and  tide,  the  railway  locomotive  travelling  at 
60  miles  an  hour,  and  the  steam-hammer  beating  blocks  of  iron  into 
useful  shapes,  are  evidences  of  the  power  which  man  acquires  through 
a  knowledge  of  mechanics. 

Knowledge  of  Electricity  enables  man  to  stand  in  comparative 
safety  amid^he  awful  war  of  the  elements.  Lightning,  the  offspring 
of  electricity,  has  a  tendency  to  strike  upon  lofty  objects  by  which 
it  may  be  attracted.  By  its  mighty  powers  churches  or  houses 
maftj?e  instantly  levelled  with  the  dust.  But  man,  knowing  that 
electricity  is  strongly  attracted  by  particular  substances,  raises  over 
lofty  buildings  rods  of  steel  communicating  with  bars  that  descend 
into  the  ground.  The  lightning,  rushing^  wkh  indescribable  force 
toward  the  steeple,  is  attracted  by  the  bar  of  steel,  and  conducted 
harmlessly  to  the  earth.  Man  may  thus  be  sajfjl  to  take  even  light- 
ning by  the  hand,  and  to  divert  its  destroying  force  by  the  aid  of 
Knowledge.  And  in  countless  other  instances  "  Knowledge  is 
Power."  • 


CHAPTER  II.  >.,        •.' 

• 

4.  Why  do  we  breathe  air?  • 

Because  the  air  contains  vxygen,  'which  is  necessary  to  life, 

5.  Why  is  oxygen  necessary  to  life?  » 
Because  it  combines  with  the  cgrlon  of  the  blood,  and  form 

carbonic  acid  gas. 


THE   EEASON    WHY. 


;  Be  not  as  the  horse,  or  as  the  mule,  which  have  no  understanding :  whi*e 
mouth  must  be  held  with  the  bit  and  bridle."— PSALM  xxxii. 


6.  WTiy  is  this  combination  necessary  ? 

Because  we  are  so  created  that  the  substances  of  our  bodies  are 
constantly  undergoing1  change,  and  this  resolving  of  solid  matter 
into  a  gaseous  form,  is  the  plan  appointed  by  our  Creator  to  remove 
the  matter  called  carbon  from  our  systems. 

7.  Why  do  our  bodies  feel  warm  ? 

Because,  in  the  union  of  oxygen  and  carbon,  heat  is  developed. 

8.  What  is  this  union  of  oxygen  and  carbon  called? 

It  is  called  combustion,  which,  in  chemistry,  means  the  decomposi- 
tion of  substances,  and  the  formation  of  new  combinations,  accom- 
panied by  heat ;  and  sometimes  by  light,  as  well  as  heat. 

9.  What  is  formed  by  the  union  of  oxygen  and  carbon  ? 
Carbonic  acid  gas. 

10.  What  becomes  of  this  carbonic  acid  gas? 

It  is  sent-  out  of  our  bodies  by  the  compressure  of  the  lungs,  and 
mingles  with  the  air  that  surrounds  us. 

11.  Is  this  carbonic  acid  gas  heavier  or  lighter  than  the 
air  ? . 

Pure  carbonic  acid  gas  is  the  heaviest  of  all  the  gasea.  That 
which  is  sent  out  of  the  lungs  is  net  pure,  because  the  whole  of  the 
air  taken  into  the  lungs  at  the  previous  inspiration  has  not  been 
deprived  of  its  oxygen,  and  the  nitrogen  is  returned.  Therefore 
the  breath  sent  out  of  the  lungs  may  be  said  to  consist  of  air,  with 
a  large  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

12.  WTiat  is  the  composition  of  air  in  its  natural  state  ? 

It  consists  of  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  in  the 
proportions  of  oxygen  20  volumes,  nitrogen  79  volumes,  and  car- 
bonic acid  gas  1  volume.  It  also  contains  a  slight  trace  of  watery 
vapour. 

13.  What  is  the  state  of  the  air  after  it  has  once  been 
breathed  ? 

It  has  parted  with  about  one-sixth  of  its  oxygen,  and  taken  up  an 
equivalent  of  carbonic  acid.  And  were  the  same  air  to  be  breathed 


30  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


1 A  prudent  man  forseeth  the  evil,  and  hideth  himself ;  but  the  simple  pass  on, 
and  are  punished." — PROVERBS  xxvii. 


six  times  successively,  it  would  have  parted  with  all  its  oxygen,  and 
could  no  longer  sustain  life. 

14.  Is  the  impure  air  sent  out  of  the   lungs   lighter  or 
heavier  tlian  common  air  ? 

At  first,  being  rarefied  by  warmth,  it  is  lighter.  But,  if  undis- 
turbed, it  would  become  heavier  as  it  cooled,  and  would  descend. 

15.  Why  is  it  proper  to  have  beds  raised  about  two  feet 
from  the  ground  ? 

Because  at  night,  the  bed-room  being  closed,  the  breath  of  the 
sleeper  impregnates  the  air  of  the  room  with  carbonic  acid  gas, 
•ffhich,  descending,  lies  in  its  greatest  density  near  to  the  floor. 

16.  What  are  the  chief  sources  of  carbonic  acid  gas  ? 

The  vegetable  kingdom  (as  will  be  hereafter  explained),  the  com- 
bustion of  substances  composed  chiefly  of  carbon,  the  breathing  of 
animals,  and  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  compounds. 

17.  Is  Ijreatliing  a  kind  of  combustion  ? 

It  is.  In  the  breathing  of  animals,  the  burning  of  coal?,  or  of 
wood,  or  candles,  &c.,  similar  changes  occur.  The  oxygen  of  the 
air  combines  with  the  carbon  of  the  substance  said  to  be  burnt, 
and  forms  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  unfits  the  air  for  the  pur- 
poses of  either  breathing  or  of  burning,  until  it  has  been  renewed  by 
admixture  with  the  air. 

18.  What  is  carbon  ? 

It  is  one  of  the  elementary  bodies,  and  is  very  abundant  through- 
out nature.  It  abounds  mostly  in  vegetable  substances,  but  is  also 
contained  in  animal  bodies,  and  in  minerals.  The  form  in  which 
it  is  most  familiar  to  us  is  that  of  charcoal,  which  is  carbon  almost 
pure. 

19.  What  is  meant  by  an  elementary  body  ? 

An  elementary  body  is  one  of  those  substances  in  which  chemistry 
is  unable  to  discover  more  than  one  constituent.  For  instance,  the 
chemist  finds  that  water  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 
Water  is  therefore  a  compound  body.  But  carbon  consists  of  carbon 
only,  and  therefore  it  is  called  a  simple,  or  elementary  body. 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  3] 


14  Where  no  wood  is,  there  the  fire  goeth  out :  so  where  there  is  no  tale-bearer, 
the  strife  ceaseth." — PKOVEEBS  xxvi. 


20.  WTiy  is  it  dangerous  to  burn  charcoal  in  rooms  ? 
Because,  being  composed  of  carbon  that  is  nearly  pure,  its  com- 
bustion gives  off  a  large  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

21.  What  is  the  effect  of  carbonic  acid  gas  upon  the  human 
system  ? 

It  induces  drowsiness  and  stupor,  which,  if  not  relieved  by 
ventilation,  would  speedily  cause  death. 

22.  What  is  the  reason  that  people  feel  drowsy  in  crowded 
rooms  ? 

Because  the  large  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  given  off  with  the 
breaths  of  the  people,  makes  the  air  poisonous  and  oppressive. 

23.  What  other  causes  of  drowsiness  are  there  ? 

The  candles,  gas,  or  fires  that  may  be  burning  in  the  rooms  where 
people  are  assembled.  Three  candles  produce  as  much  carbonic 
acid  gas  as  one  human  being ;  and  it  is  probable  that  one  gas-light 
produces  as  much  carbonic  acid  gas  as  two  persons. 

24.  Have  people  ever  been  poisoned  by  their  ovtn  breaths  ? 
In  the  reign  of  George  the  Second,  the  Rajah  of  Bengal  took 

some  English  prisoners  in  Calcutta,  and  put  146  of  them  into  a 
place  which  was  called  the  "  Black  Hole."  This  place  was  only  18 
feet  square  by  16  feet  high,  and  ventilation  was  provided  for  only 
by  two  small  grated  windows.  One  hundred  and  twenty-three  of 
the  prisoners  died  in  the  night,  and  most  of  the  survivors  were 
afterwards  carried  off  by  putrid  fevers.  Many  other  instances  have 
occurred,  but  this  one  is  the  most  remarkable. 


CHAPTER  III. 

25.  What  is  oxygen  ? 

Oxygen  is  one  of  the  most  widely  diffused  of  the  elementary  sub- 
stances.   It  is  a  gaseous  body. 

26.  Wliy  do  persons  who  are  walking,  or  riding  upon  lior&e- 
~bach  feel  warmer  than  when  they  are  sitting  still  ? 


32 


THE    EEASON    WHY. 


r  Stand  in  awe  and  sin  not :  commune  with  your  own  heart  upon  your  bed  and 
be  still."— PSALM  iv. 


Because  as  they  breathe  more  rapidly,  the  combustion  of  the 
carbon  in  the  blood  is  increased  by  the  oxygen  inhaled,  and  greater 
heat  is  developed. 

27.  Why  does  the  fire  burn  more  brightly  when  blown  ly  a 
bellows  ? 

Because  it  receives,  with  every  current  of  air,  a  fresh  supply  of 
oxygen,  which  unites  with  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  coals, 
causing  more  rapid  combustion  and  increased  heat. 

28.  Why  does  not  the  oxygen  of  the  air  sometimes  take 
fire? 

Because  oxygen,  by  itself,  is  incombustible.  The  wick  of  a 
candle,  which  retains  the  slightest  spark,  being  immersed  in  oxygen, 
will  instantly  burst  into  a  brilliant  flame  ;  and  even  a  piece  of  iron 
wire  made  red-hot,  and  dipped  in  oxygen,  will  burn  rapidly  and 
brilliantly.  Oxygen,  though  non-combustible  of  itself,  is  the  most 
powerful  supporter  of  combustion. 

29.  Why  do  we  know  that  oxygen  will  not  burn  of  itself  ? 
Because  when  we  immerse  a  burning  substance  into  a  jar  of 

oxygen,  it  immediately  burns  with  intense  brilliancy ;  but  directly 
it  is  withdrawn  from  the  oxygen,  the  intensity  of  the  flame  diminishes, 
and  the  oxygen  which  remains  is  unaffected. 

30.  Why  do  we  Tcnow  that  oxygen   is   necessary   to   our 
existence  ? 

Because  animals  placed  in  any  kind  of  gas,  or  in  any  combination 
of  gases,  where  oxygen  does  not  exist,  die  in  a  very  short  time. 

31.  Where  is  oxygen  found  ? 

It  is  found  in  the  air,  mixed  with  nitrogen  ;  in  water  combined 
with  hydrogen ;  in  the  tissues  of  vegetables  and  animals ;  in  our 
blood;  and  in  various  compounds  called,  from  the  presence  of 
oxygen,  oxides. 

32.  Why  is  the  oxygen  of  the  air  mixed  so  largely  with 
nitrogen  ? 

Because  oxygen  in  any  greater  proportion  than  that  in  which  it 
is  found  in  the  atmosphere,  would  be  too  exciting  to  the  animal 


THE   EEASON    WHY.  33 


"As  vinegar  is  to  the  teeth,  and  as  smoke  to  the  eyes,  so  is  the  sluggard  to  him 
that  sent  him."— PBOVEUBS  x. 

system.     Animals  placed  in  pure  oxygen  die  in  great  agony  from 
fever  and  excitement,  amounting  to  madness. 

33.  Wliat  is  nitrogen  ? 

Nitrogen  is  an  elementary  body  in  the  form  of  gas. 

34.  Where  is  nitrogen  found  ? 

It  is  chiefly  found  in  the  air,  of  which  it  constitutes  79  out  of  100 
volumes.  It  may  be  mixed  with  oxygen  in  various  proportions ; 
but  in  the  atmosphere  it  is  uniformly  diffused.  It  is  found  in  most 
animal  matter,  except  fat  and  bone.  It  is  not  a  constituent  of  the 
vegetable  acids,  but  it  is  found  in  most  of  the  vegetable  alkalies. 

35.  Wliat  are  acids  ? 

Acids  are  a  numerous  class  of  chemical  bodies.  They  are  gene- 
rally sour.  Usually  (though  there  are  exceptions)  they  have  a 
great  affinity  for  water,  and  are  easily  soluble  therein ;  they  unite 
readily  with  most  alkalies,  and  with  the  various  oxides.  All  acids 
are  compounds  of  two  or  mere  substances.  Acids  are  found  in  all 
the  kingdoms  of  nature. 

33.    What  are  alkalies  ? 

Alkalies  are  a  numerous  class  of  substances  that  have  a  great 
affinity  for,  and  readily  combine  with,  acids,  .forming  salts.  They 
exercise  peculiar  influence  upon  vegetable  colours,  turning  blues 
green,  and  yellows  reddish  brown.  But  they  will  restore  the 
colours  of  vegetable  blues  which  have  been  reddened  by  acids  ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  acids  restore  vegetable  colours  that  have 
been  altered  by  the  alkalies.  Alkalies  are  found  in  all  the  kingdoms 
of  nature. 

37.  Could  animals  live  in  nitrogen  ? 

No ;  they  would  immediately  die.  But  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and 
nitrogen,  in  equal  volumes,  constitutes  nitrous  oxide,  which  gives  a 
pleasurable  excitement  to  those  who  inhale  it,  causing  them  to  be 
merry,  almost  to  insanity ;  it  has,  therefore,  been  called  laughing 
gas. 

38.  JFTiy  does  nitrous  oxide  produce  this  effect  ? 
Because  it  introduces  into  the  body  more  oxygen  than  can  be 

consumed.     It,  therefore,  deranges  the  nervous  system,  and  bcin°r 
2* 


34  THE   REASON  WHY. 


"Lord,  make  me  know  mine  end,  and  the  measure  of  my  days,  that  I  may  know 
how  frail  I  am."— PSALM  xxxix. 


a  powerful  stimulant,  gives  an  unnatural  activity  to  the  nervous 
centres  and  the  brain. 

39.  In  what  proportions  are  the  atmospheric  gases  found  in 
the  Hood? 

The  mean  quantity  of  the  gases  contained  in  the  human  blood  has 
been  found  to  be  equal  to  l-10th  of  its  whole  volume.  In  venous 
blood,  the  average  quantity  of  carbonic  add  is  about  1-1 8th,  that  of 
oxygen  about  l-85th,  and  that  of  nitrogen  about  l-100th  of  the 
volume  of  the  blood.  In  arterial  blood  their  quantities  have  been 
found  to  be  carbonic  acid  about  l-14th,  oxygen  about  l-3Sth, 
and  nitrogen  about  l-72nd. 

40.  Then  is  nitrogen  taJcen  into  the  Hood  from  the  air  ? 
Such  a  supposition  is  highly  improbable.     It  is  probably  derived 

from  nitrogenisedfood,  just  as  carbonic  acid  is  derived  from  car- 
lonisedfood. 

41.  W hat  is  venous  blood? 

Venous  blood  is  that  which  is  returning  through  the  veins  of  the 
body  from  the  organs  to  which  it  has  been  circulated. 

42.  What  is  arterial  blood  ? 

Arterial  blood  is  that  which  is  flowing  from  the  heart  through 
the  arteries  to  nourish  the  parts  where  those  arteries  are  distri- 
buted. 

43.  What  is  the  difference  between  venous  and  arterial 
blood? 

Venous  blood  contains  more  carbonic  acid,  and  less  oxygen  and 
nitrogen  than  arterial  blood. 

44.  Will  nitrogen  burn  ? 

It  will  not  burn,  nor  will  it  support  combustion. 

45.  What  is  the  difference  between  "  burning"  and  "  sup- 
porting combustion?" 

Oxygen  gas  will  not  burn  of  itself,  but  it  aids  the  decomposition 
by  fire  of  bodies  that  are  combustible.  It  is  therefore  called  a  sup- 
porter of  combustion.  But  hydrogen  gas,  though  it  burns  of  itself 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  35 


As  coals  are  to  burning  coals,  and  wood  to  fire ;  so  is  a  contentious  man  to 
kindle  strife."— PKOVERBS  xxvi. 


will  extinguish  a  flame  immersed  in  it.  It  is  therefore  said  to  bo 
a  body  which  will  burn,  but  will  not  support  combustion. 

46.  What  becomes  of  the  nitrogen  that  is  inhaled  with  the 
air  ? 

It  is  thrown  off  with  the  breath,  mixed  with  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  flies  away  to  be  renewed  by  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen. 

47.  Where  does  nitrogen  find  afresh  supply  of  oxygen  ? 
In  the  atmosphere.     Nitrogen  is   said  to  possess  a  remarkable 

tendency  to  mix  with  oxygen,  without  having  a  positive  chemical 
affinity  for  it.  That  is  to  say,  neither  the  oxygen  nor  the  nitrogen 
undergoes  any  change  by  the  union,  except  that  of  admixture.  The 
oxygen  and  the  nitrogen  still  possess  their  own  peculiar  properties. 
Oxygen  and  nitrogen  are  found  in  nearly  the  same  proportions  in  all 
climates,  and  at  all  altitudes. 

48.  In  combustion  does  any  other  result  take  place  besides 
the  union  of  oxygen  and  carbon  forming  carbonic  acid  gas? 

Yes.     Usually  hydrogen  is  present,  which  in  burning  unites  with 
oxygen,  and  forms  water. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

49.  What  is  hydrogen  ? 

Hydrogen  is  an  elementary  gas,  and  is  the  lightest  of  all  known 
bodies. 

50.  Will  hydrogen  support  animal  life  ? 

It  will  not.     It  proves  speedily  fatal  to  animals. 

51.  Will  hydrogen  support  combustion  ? 

Although  it  will  burn,  yielding  a  feeble  bluish  light,  it  will,  if  pure, 
extinguish  a  flame  that  may  be  immersed  in  it.  Hydrogen  will 
therefore  burn,  but  will  not  support  combustion. 

52.  Why  will  hydrogen  explode,  if  it  will  not  support  com- 
bustion ? 

When  hydrogen  explodes  it  is  always  in  combination  with  oxygen, 


36  TEE   EEASON   WHY. 


'As  smoke  is  driven  away,  so  drive  the  in  away:  as  wax  melteth  before  the  fire, 
so  let  the  wicked  perish  at  the  presence  of  God." — PSALM:  xxvi. 


or  with  the  common  air,  which  contains  oxygen.     Two  measures  of 
hydrogen  and  one  of  oxygen  form  a  most  explosive  compound. 

53.  Why  does  hydrogen  explode,  when  mixed  with  oxygen, 
upon  being  brought  in  contact  with  fire  ? 

Because  of  its  strong  affinity  for  oxygen,  with  which,  upon  the 
application  of  heat,  it  unites  to  form  water. 

54.  Where  does  hydrogen  chiefly  exist  ? 

In  the  form  of  water,  where  it  exists  in  combination  with  oxygen. 
Eleven  parts  of  hydrogen,  and  eighty-nine  of  oxygen,  form  water. 

55.  Ts  hydrogen  found  elsewhere  ? 

It  is  never  found  but  in  a  state  of  combination ;  united  with 
oxygen,  it  exists  in  water;  with  nitrogen,  in  ammonia;  with 
chlorine,  in  hydro-chloric  acid;  with  fluorine,  in  hydro-fluoric  acid; 
and  in  numerous  other  combinations. 

56.  Is  the  gas  used  to  illuminate  our  streets,  hydrogen  gas? 
It  is  ;  but  it  is  combined  with  carbon,  derived  from  the  coals  from 

which  it  is  made.      It  is  therefore  called  carburetted  hydrogen, 
which  means  hydrogen  with  carbon. 

57.  Hoiv  is  hydrogen  gas  obtained  from  coals  ? 

It  is  driven  out  of  the  coals  by  heat,  in  closed  vessels,  which  pre- 
vent its  union  with  oxygen. 

58.  What  becomes  of  the  water  which  is  formed  by  the 
burning  of  hydrogen  in  oxygen  ? 

It  passes  into  the  air  in  the  form  of  watery  vapour.  Frequently 
it  condenses,  and  may  be  seen  upon  the  walls  and  windows  of  rooms 
where  many  lights  or  fires  are  burning.  Sometimes,  also,  portions 
of  it  become  condensed  in  the  globes  of  the  glasses  that  are 
suspended  over  the  jets  of  gas.  A  large  volume  of  these  gases 
forms  only  a  very  small  volume  of  water. 

59.  What  becomes  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  is  pro- 
duced by  combustion  ? 

It  is  diffused  in  the  air,  which  should  be  removed  by  adequate? 
ventilation. 


THE   EEASON    WHY.  37 


"  I  will  both  lay  me  down  in  peace  and  sleep :  for  thou,  Lord,  only,  makest  mo 
dwell  in  safety." — PSALM  iv. 

60.  What  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas  is  dangerous  to 
life  ? 

Any  proportion  over  the  natural  one  of  1  per  cent,  may  bo 
regarded  as  injurious.  But  toxicologists  state  that  five  per  cent. 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  atmosphere  is  dangerous  to  life. 

Gl.    Wliat  are  toxicologists  ? 

Persons  who  study  the  nature  and  effects  of  poisons  and  their 
antidotes. 

62.  IVhich    kind  of  combustible  used  for    lighting   tends 
most  to  vitiate  the  air  ? 

Assuming  all  the  lights  to  be  of  the  same  intensity,  the  degree  in 
which  the  substances  burnt  would  vitiate  the  atmosphere  may  be 
gathered  from  the  number  of  minutes  each  would  take  to  exhaust 
a  given  quantity  of  air.  This  has  been  found  to  be :  rape  oil,  71 
minutes  ;  olive  oil,  72  ;  B.ussian  tallow,  75  ;  town  tallow,  76  ;  sperm 
oil,  76 ;  stearic  acid,  77 ;  wax  candles,  79 ;  spermaceti  candles,  83  ; 
common  coal  gas,  98 ;  canal  coal  gas,  152.  Thus  it  is  shown  that 
rape  oil  is  most  destructive  of  the  atmosphere,  and  that  coal  gas  is 
the  least  destructive. 

63.  Is  an  escape  of  hydrogen  gas  from  a  gas-pipe  dangerous 
to  life  ? 

It  is  dangerous,  first,  by  inhalation.  There  are  no  less  than 
six  deaths  upon  record  of  persons  who  were  killed  by  sleeping  in 
rooms  near  to  which  there  was  a  leakage  of  gas. 

It  is  dangerous,  secondly,  by  explosion. 

[In  1848,  an  explosion  of  gas  occurred  in  Albany-street,  Regent's-park, 
London.  The  gas  accumulated  in  a  shop  for  a  very  short  time  only.  It  had 
been  escaping  from  a  crack  in  the  nic-ter  for  about  one  hour  and  twenty 
minutes.  The  area  of  the  room  was  about  1,620  cubic  feet.  When  the  gas 
exploded,  it  blew  out  the  entire  front  of  the  premises,  carried  two  persons 
through  a  window  into  an  adjoining  yard,  and  forced  another  person  on  to  the 
pavement  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street,  where  she  was  killed.  The  effect 
of  the  explosion  was  felt  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  on  each  side  of  the 
house,  and  most  of  the  windows  in  the  neighbourhood  were  shattered.  The 
iron  railings  over  the  area  of  the  house  directly  opposite  were  snapped  asunder ; 
and  a  part  of  the  roof,  and  th«  back  windows  of  another  house,  were  carried  to 
a  distance  of  from  200  to  300  yards.  The  pavement  was  k.rn  up  for  a  considerable 


38  THE   REASON   WHY. 


"  O  Lord,  our  Lord,  how  excellent  is  thy  name  in  all  the  earth !  who  hast  set  thy 
glory  above  the  heavens. — PSAXM  vm. 

length,  and  the  damage  done  to  103  houses  was  afterwards  reported  to  amount 
to  £20,000.  Other  serious  explosions  have  taken  place.  The  explosions  of  "  coal 
damp"  which  frequently  occur  iu  mines,  are  of  a  similar  character.] 

64.  WTiat  proportion  of  hydrogen  gas  with  atmospheric  air 
will  explode  ? 

According  to  the  researches  of  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  seven  or 
eight  parts  of  air,  to  one  of  gas,  produce  the  greatest  explosive 
effect ;  while  larger  proportions  of  gas  are  less  dangerous.  A  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  gas  and  air  will  burn,  but  it  will  not  explode. 
The  same  is  the  case  with  a  mixture  of  two  of  air,  or  three  of  air, 
and  one  offfas;  but/owr  of  air  and  one  of  gas  begin  to  be  explosive, 
and  the  explosive  tendency  increases  up  to  seven  or  eight  of  air  and 
one  of  gas,  after  which  the  increased  proportion  of  gas  diminishes 
the  force  of  the  explosion. 

65.  WTiat  is  the  lest  method  of  preventing  the  explosion  of 
gas  ? 

Observe  the  rule,  never  to  approach  a  supposed  leakage  with  a 
light.  Fortunately  the  gas,  which  threatens  our  lives,  warns  us  of 
the  danger  by  its  pungent  smell.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
open  windows  and  doors,  and  to  ventilate  the  apartment.  Then 
turn  the  gas  off  at  the  main,  and  wait  a  short  time  until  the  accu- 
mulated gas  has  been  dipersed. 

66.  Does  "hydrogen  gas  rise  or  fall  when  it  escapes  ? 

Being  twelve  times  lighter  than  common  air  it  rises,  and  there- 
fore it  would  be  better  for  ventilation  to  open  the  window  at  the 
top  than  at  the  bottom.  But  all  gases  exhibit  a  strong  tendency  to 
diffuse  themselves,  and  therefore  they  do  not  rise  or  fall  in  the 
degree  that  might  be  anticipated. 

67.  What  proportion  of  hydrogen  in  the  air  is  dangerous  to 
life,  if  inhaled? 

One-fiftieth  part  has  been  found  to  have  a  serious  effect  upon 
animals.  The  effects  it  produces  upon  the  human  system  are  those 
of  depression,  headache,  sickness,  and  general  prostration  of  the 
vital  powers.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  observe  precautions  in  the 
use  of  gas. 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  39 


"  From  the  place  of  his  habitation  he  looketh  upon  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth."— Ps AIM  xxxm. 

68.  What  proportion  of  gas  in  the  air  may  be  recognised 
ly  the  smell  ? 

By  persons  of  acute  powers  of  smelling  it  may  be  recognised  when 
there  is  one  part  of  gas  in  Jive  hundred  parts  of  atmospheric  air  ; 
but  it  becomes  very  perceptible  when  it  forms  one  part  in  a  hundred 
and  fifty.  Warning  is,  therefore,  given  to  us  long  before  the  point 
of  danger  arrives. 

69.  What  other  sources  of  hydrogen  are  there  in  our 
dwellings  ? 

It  arises  from  the  decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, containing  sulphur  and  hydrogen.  These  give  off  a  gas 
called  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  from  which  the  fsetid  effluviam  of 
drains  and  water-closets  chiefly  arise.  We  should,  therefore,  take 
every  precaution  to  secure  effective  drainage,  and  to  keep  drain-traps 
in  proper  order. 

70.  May  the  use  of  gas  for  purposes  of  illumination  le  con- 
sidered highly  dangerous  ? 

Not  if  it  is  intelligently  managed.  The  appliances  for  the  regu- 
lation of  gas  are  so  very  simple  and  perfect,  that  accidents  seldom 
arise  except  from  neglect.  In  England  6,000,000  tons  of  coal  are 
usually  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  gas,  producing  60,000,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  gas.  And  yet  accidents  are  of  very  uncommon 
occurrence. 


CHAPTER  V- 

71.  What  is  heat? 

Heat  is  a  principle  in  nature  which,  like  light  and  electricity,  is 
best  understood  by  its  effects.  We  popularly  call  that  heat,  which 
raises  the  temperature  of  bodies  submitted  to  its  influence. 

72.  What  is  caloric  ? 

Caloric  is  another  term  for  heat.  It  is  advisable,  however,  to  use 
the  term  caloric  when  speaking  of  the  cause  of  heat,  and  of  heat 
as  the  effect  of  the  presence  of  caloric. 


40  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


'  While  the  earth  remaineth,  seed-time  and  harvest,  and  cold  and  heat,  and 
summer  and  winter,  and  day  and  night,  shall  not  cease." — GEN.  viu. 


73.  What  is  the  source  of  caloric  ? 

The  sun  is  its  chief  source.  But  caloric,  in  some  degree,  exists  in 
every  known  substance. 

74.  What  are  the  effects  of  caloric  ? 

Heat  which,  in  proportion  to  its  intensity,  acts  variously  upon  all 
bodies,  causing  expansion,  fusion,  evaporation,  decomposition,  8fc. 

75.  Why  is  caloric  called  a  repulsive  agent  ? 

Because  its  chief  effects  are  to  expand,  fuse,  evaporate,  or  de- 
compose the  substances  upon  which  it  acts. 

76.  What  is  an  attractive  agent,  in  contradistinction  to  a 
repulsive  agent  ? 

Chemical  attraction,  or  affinity,  is  an  attractive  agent— as  when 
bodies  seek  of  their  own  natures  to  unite  and  form  some  new  body. 

77.  When  is  a  body  said  to  be  hot  ? 

When  it  holds  so  much  caloric  that  it  diffuses  heat  to  surround- 
ing objects. 

78.  When  is  a  body  said  to  be  cold? 

When  it  holds  less  caloric  than  surrounding  objects,  and  absorbs 
heat  from  them. 

79.  How  may  caloric  be  excited  to  develope  heat  ? 

By  any  means  which  cause  agitation,  or  produce  an  active  change 
in  the  condition  of  bodies.  Thus  friction,  percussion,  sudden  con- 
densation or  expansion,  chemical  combination,  and  electrical  dis- 
charges, all  develope  heat. 

80.  Why  do  "  burning  glasses"  appear  to  set  fire  to  com- 
bustible substances  ? 

Because  they  gather  into  one  point,  or  focus,  several  rays  of 
caloric  as  they  are  travelling  from  the  sun,  and  the  accumulation  of 
caloric  developes  that  intensity  of  heat  which  constitutes j£re. 

81.  IVhat  is  a  focus  ?    ' 

In  optics,  it  is  the  point  or  centre  at  which,  .or  around  which, 
divergent  rays  are  brought  into  the  closest  possible  union. 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  41 


Yet  man  is  born  to  trouble,  as  the  sparks  fly  upward.— I  would  seek  unto  God, 
and  unto  God  would  I  commit  my  cause."— JOB  y. 


82.  What  is  fire? 

It  is  a  violent  chemical  action  attending  the  combustion  of  tha 
ingredients  of  fuel  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

83.  What  are  the  properties  of  fire  ? 

It  imparts*  heat,  which  has  the  effect  of  expanding  both 
fluids  and  solids. 

It  cannot  exist  without  the  presence  of  combustible  materials. 
It  has  a  tendency  to  diffuse  itself  in  every  direction. 
It  cannot  exist  without  oxygen  or  atmospheric  air. 

84.  What  elements  take  part  in  the  maintenance  of  a  fire  ? 
Hydrogen,  carbon,  and  oxygen.     Hydrogen  and  carbon  exist  in 

the  fuel,  and  oxygen  is  supplied  by  the  air. 

85.  How  does  the  combustion  of  a  fire  begin  ? 

A  match  made  of  phosphorous  and  sulphur  (highly  inflammable 
substances)  is  drawn  over  a  piece  of  sand-paper  •  the  friction  of  the 
match  induces  the  presence  of  caloric,  which  developes  heat,  and 
ignites  the  match,  the  burning  of  which  is  sustained  by  the  oxygen 
of  the  air.  The  flame  is  then  applied  to  paper  or  wood,  and 
the  heat  of  the  flame  is  sufficient  to  drive  out  hydrogen  gas,  which 
unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  burns,  imparting  greater 
heat  to  the  carbon  of  the  coals,  which  assumes  the  form  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  by  union  with  oxygen,  and  in  a  little  while  all  the 
conditions  of  combustion  are  established. 

86.  What  are  the  properties  of  heat  ? 
It  may  exist  without  fire  or  light. 

It  is  not  sensible  to  vision. 

It  makes  an  impression  upon  our  feelings. 

It  acts  powerfully  upon  all  bodies. 

It  has  KO  weight. 

It  attends,  or  is  connected  with,  all  the  operations  of  nature. 

It  radiates  from  all  bodies  in  straight  lines,  and  in  all  directions. 

It  strikes  most  powerfully  in  direct  lines. 

Its  rays  may  be  collected  into  a  focus,  just  as  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

It  may  be  reflected  from  a  polished  surface. 

It  is  more  easily  conducted  by  some  substances  than  by  others. 


THE    EEASON   WHY. 


For  ruy  days  are  consumed  like  smoke,  and  my  bones  are  burned  as  an 
hearth."—  PSALM  en. 


87.  What  is  animal  heat  ? 

Animal  heat  is  derived  from  the  slow  combustion  of  carbon  in  the 
blood  of  animals  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  which  the  animals 
breathe. 

88.  What  is  latent  heat  ?  &  •%;-, 

Latent  heat  (or  more  properly  latent  caloric)  is  that  which 
exists,  in  some  degree,  in  all  bodies,  though  it  may  be  imperceptible 
to  the  senses. 

89.  Is  there  latent  caloric  in  ice,  snow,  water,  marble,  Sfc  ? 
Yes  ;  there  is  some  amount  of  caloric  in  all  substances. 

[A  blacksmith  may  hammer  a  small  piece  of  iron  until  it  becomes  red  hot. 
With  this  he  may  light  a  match,  and  kindle  the  fire  of  his  forge.  The  iron  has 
become  more  dense  by  the  hammering,  and  it  cannot  again  be  heated  to  the 
same  degree  by  similar  means,  until  it  has  been  exposed  in  fire,  to  a  red  heat. 
Is  it  not  possible  that,  by  hammering,  the  particles  of  iron  have  been  driven 
closer  together,  and  the  latent  heat  driven  out  ?  No  further  hammering  will 
force  the  atoms  nearer,  and  therefore  no  further  heat  can  be  developed.  But 
when  the  iron  has  again  absorbed  caloric,  by  being  plunged  in  a  fire,  it  is  again 
charged  with  latent  heat.  Indians  produce  sparks  by  rubbing  together  two 
pieces  of  wood.  Two  pieces  of  ice  may  be  rubbed  together  until  sufficient 
warmth  is  developed  to  melt  them  both.  The  axles  of  railway  carriages 
frequently  become  red  hot  from  friction.'] 

90.  Have  vegetables  heat  ? 

Yes  ;  whenever  oxygen  combines  with  carbon  to  form  carbonic 
acid  gas,  an  extrication  of  heat  takes  place,  however  minute  the 
amount.  Such  a  combination  occurs  much  more  extensively  during 
the  germination  of  seeds  and  the  impregnation  of  flowers,  than  at 
any  other  time.  In  the  germination  of  barley  heaped  in  rooms, 
previous  to  being  converted  into  malt,  it  is  well  known  that  a 
considerable  amount  of  heat  is  developed. 

91.  Has  any  investigation  of  this  subject  ever  been  care- 
fully made  ? 

Yes.  Lamarck,  Senebier,  and  De  Candolle,  found  the  flowers  of 
the  Arum  Maculatum,  between  three  and  seven  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  as  much  as  7  deg.  Eeaum.  warmer  than  the  external 
air.  Schultz  found  a  difference  of  4  deg.  to  5  deg.  between  the 
heat  of  the  spathe  of  the  Canadian  pinnatifolium  and  the  sur- 


THE    REASON   WHY.  43 


"  And  there  are  diversities  of  operations,  but  it  is  the  same  God  which  woi  ketb 
in  all." — CORINTHIANS  xu. 

rounding  air,  at  six  to  seven  o'clock  p.m.  Other  observations  have 
established  differences  of  as  much  as  30  deg.  between  the  temperature 
of  the  spathe  of  the  Arum  cordifolium,  and  that  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere. 

92.  Have  plants  sometimes  a  temperature  lower  than  that 
of  the  surrounding  air  ? 

Yes.  It  has  not  only  been  found  that  under  particular  circum- 
stances the  heat  of  certain  parts  of  plants  is  elevated  to  a  very  re- 
markable degree,  but  that,  under  nearly  all  circumstances,  they  have 
a  temperature  different  from  that  of  the  external  air,  being  warmer 
in  winter,  and  cooler  in  summer. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

93.  How  many  kinds  of  combustion  are  there? 

There  are  three,  viz.,  slow  oxydation,  when  little  or  no  light  is 
evolved;  a  more  rapid  combination,  when  the  heat  is  so  great  as  to 
become  luminous  ;  and  a  still  more  energetic  action,  when  it  bursts 
into  flame. 

94.  Why  does  phospnorous  look  luminous  ? 
Because  it  is  undergoing  slow  combustion. 

95.  Why  do  decayed  tvood,  and  putrifying  fish,  look  lumi- 
nous ? 

Because  they  are  undergoing  slow  combustion.  In  these  cases 
the  heat  and  light  evolved  are  at  no  one  time  very  considerable. 
But  the  total  amount  of  heat,  and  probably  of  light,  generated 
through  the  lengthy  period  of  this  slow  oxydation,  amounts  to  exact- 
ly  the  same  as  loould  be  evolved  during  the  most  rapid  combustion 
of  the  same  substances. 

9G.   Wliat  is  flame? 

It  is  gaseous  matter  burning  at  a  very  high  temperature. 
97.  WTiy,  when  we  put  fresh,  coals  upon  a  fire,  do  we  hear 
the  gas  escaping  from  the  coals  without  taking  fire  ? 


44:  THE   EEASON    WHY. 


;  I  will  praise  thee,  O  Lord,  with  my  whole  heart ;  I  will  show  forth  ll.y 
marvellous  work." — PSA.LM  ix. 


Because,  the  fire  being  slow,  the  temperature  is  not  high  enough 
to  ignite  the  gas. 

98.  What  is  the  gas  which  escapes  from  the  coals  ? 
Carburetted  hydrogen. 

99.  Why,  if  we  light  a  piece  of  paper,  and  lay  it  where  the 
gas  is  escaping  from  the  coals,  will  it  burst  into  flame  ? 

Because  the  lighted  paper  gives  a  heat  sufficient  to  ignite  the  gas  ; 
and  because  also  hydrogen  requires  the  contact  of  flame  to  ignite  it. 

100.  Why,  when  the  coals  have  become   heated,  will  the 
hydrogen  burst  into  flame  ? 

Because  the  carbon  of  the  coals,  and  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  have 
begun  to  combine,  and  have  greatly  increased  the  heat,  and  have 
produced  a  rapid  combustion,  so  nearly  allied,  to  flame,  that  it 
ignites  the  hydrogen. 

101.  What  temperature  is  required  to  produce  flame  ? 
That  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  combustible  you  desire  to 

burn.  Finely  divided  phosphorous  and  phosphorated  hydrogen  will 
take  fire  at  a  temperature  of  60  deg.  or  70  deg. ;  solid  phos- 
phorous at  140  deg. ;  sulphur  at  500  deg. ;  hydrogen  and  car- 
bonic oxide  at  1,000  deg.  (red  heat) ;  coal  gas,  ether,  turpentine, 
alcohol,  tallow,  and  wood,  at  about  2,000  deg.  (incipient  white 
heat).  When  once  inflamed  they  will  continue  to  burn,  and  will 
maintain  a  very  high  temperature. 

102.  What  is  smoJce  ? 

Smoke  consists  of  small  particles  of  carbon  of  hydrogen  gas,  and 
other  volatile  matters,  which  are  driven  off  by  heat  and  carried  up 
the  chimney. 

103.  Is  it  not  a  waste  of  fuel  to  allow  this  matter  to  escape? 
It  is,  as  it  might  all  be  burnt  up  by  better  management, 

104.  How  may  the  waste  be  avoided? 

By  putting  on  only  a  little  coals  at  a  time,  so  that  the  heat  of  the 
fire  shall  be  sufficient  to  consume  these  volatile  matters  as  tuey 
escape. 


THE   EEASON    WHY  45 

1  And  the  strong  shall  be  as  tow,  and  the  maker  of  it  as  a  spark,  and  they  shall 
both  burn  together,  and  none  shall  quench  them." — ISAIAH  I. 


105.  Why  is  there  so  little  smoke  ivhen  the  fire  is  red? 
Because  the  hydrogen  and  the  volatile  parts  of  the  coal  have 

already  been  driven  off  and  consumed,  and  the  combustion  that  con- 
tinues is  principally  caused  by  the  carbon  of  the  coals,  and  the 
ox  v  gen  of  the  air. 

106.  Will  carbon,  burnt  in  oxygen,  produce  flame   and 
smoke  ? 

It  burns  brightly,  but  it  produces  neither  flame  nor  smoke. 

107.  Why  do  not  charcoal  and  colce  fires  give  flame  ? 
Because  the  hydrogen  has  been  driven  off  by  the  processes  by 

which  charcoal  and  coke  are  made. 

108.  What  is  a  conductor  of  heat  ? 

A  conductor  of  heat  is  any  substance  through  which  heat  is 
readily  transmitted. 

109.  What  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat? 

A  non-conductor  is  any  substance  through  which  heat  will  not 
pass  readily. 

110.  Name  a  few  good  conductors. 

Gold,  silver,  copper,  platinum,  iron,  zinc,  tin,  stone,  and  all  dense 

solid  bodies. 

111.  Name  a  few  non-conductors. 

Fur,  wool,  down,  wood,  cotton,  paper,  and  all  substances  of  a 
spongy  or  porous  texture. 

112.  How  is  heat  transmitted  from  one  lody  to  another  ? 
By  Conduction,  Radiation,  Reflection,  Absorption  and  Convection. 

113.  What  is  the  Conduction  of  heat? 

It  is  the  communication  of  heat  from  one  body  to  another  by  con- 
tact.    If  I  lay  a  penny  piece  upon  the  hob,  it  becomes  hot  by 

conduction. 

114.  What  is  the  Radiation  of  heat? 

The  transmission  of  heat  by  a  series  of  rays.     If  I  hold  my  hand 


46  THE   REASON  WHY. 


"  Sing  praises  to  the  Lord,  which  dwellcth  in  Zion,  declare  among  the  people  his' 
doings." — PSALM  ix. 


before  the  fire,  the  rays  of  heat  fall  upon  it,  and  my  hand  receives 
the  heat  through  radiation. 

115.  What  is  the  Reflection  of  heat  ? 

The  reflection  of  heat  is  the  throwing  back  of  its  rays  towards 
the  direction  whence  they  came.  In  a  Dutch  oven  the  rays  of  heat 
pass  from  the  fire  to  the  oven,  and  are  reflected  back  again  by  the 
bright  surf  ace  of  the  tin.  There  is,  therefore,  considerable  economy 
of  heat  in  ovens,  and  other  cooking  utensils  constructed  upon  this 
plan. 

116.  What  is  the  Absorption  of  heat  ? 

The  absorption  of  heat  is  the  taking  of  it  up  by  the  body  to  which 
it  is  transmitted  or  conducted.  Heat  was  conveyed  to  my  hand  by 
radiation,  and  taken  up  by  my  hand  by  absorption 

117.  What  is  the  Convection  of  heat  ? 

The  convection  of  heat  is  the  transmission  of  it  through  a  body 
or  a  number  of  bodies,  or  particles  of  bodies,  by  those  substances 
which  first  received  it ;  as  when  hot  water  rises  from  the  bottom 
of  a  kettle  and  imparts  heat  to  the  cold  water  lying  above  it. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

118.  Wliy  does  not  apiece  of  wood  which  is  burning  at  one 
end,  feel  hot  at  the  other  end  ? 

Because  wood  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat. 

119.  Why  is  wood  a  bad  conductor  of  heat  ? 

Because  the  arrangement  of  the  particles  of  which  it  is  composed 
does  not  favour  the  transmission  of  caloric. 

120.  Why  do  some  articles  of  clothing  feel  cold,  and  others 
warm  ? 

Because  some  are  bad  conductors  of  heat,  and  do  not  draw  off 
much  of  the  warmth  of  our  bodies;  while  others  are  better  con- 
ductors, and  take  up  a  larger  portion  of  our  warmth. 


THE    REASON    WHY.  47 


"  The  fining  pot  is  for  silver,  and  the  furnace  for  gold :  but  the  Lord  trieth  the 
hearts."— PKO  VERBS  xvn. 


121.  Which  feels  the  warmer,  the  conductor  or  non-con- 
ductor ? 

The  non-conductor,  as  it  does  not  readily  absorb  the  warmth  of 
our  bodies. 

122.  What  substances  are  the  lest  conductors  ofheat? 

Gold,  silver,  copper,  and  most  substances  of  close  and  hard  for- 
mation, &c. 

123.  What  substances  are  the  worst  conductors  ofheat? 
Fur,  eider  down,  feathers,  raw  silk,  wood,  lamp-black,  cotton, 

soot,  charcoal,  &c. 

124.  Why  has  the  toasting-fork  a  wooden  handle  ? 

Because  wood  is  not  so  good  a  conductor  as  metal,  therefore  the 
wood  prevents  the  heat  from  being  transmitted  by  conduction  to 
our  hands. 

125.  Why  lias  the  coffee-pot  a  wooden  "handle  ? 

Because  the  metal  of  the  coffee-pot  would  otherwise  conduct  the 
heat  to  the  hand  ;  but  wood,  being  a  bad  conductor,  prevents  it. 

126.  Why  does  hot  water  in  a  metal  jug  feel  hotter  than 
in  an  earthenware  one  ? 

Because  metal,  being  a  good  conductor,  readily  delivers  heat  to 
the  hand  ;  but  earthenware,  being  an  indifferent  conductor,  parts 
with  the  heat  slowly.  -, 

127.  How  can  ive  ascertain  that  ivood  prevents  the  conduc- 
tion ofheat  to  the  hand? 

By  passing  the  top  of  the  finger  along  the  wooden  handle  of  the 
coffee-pot,  until  it  raaches  the  point  where  the  wood  meets  the 
metal.  The  wooden  handle  will  be  found  to  be  cool,  but  the  metal 
will  feel  very  hot, 

128.  Of  what  use  are  kettle-holders  ? 

Being  made  of  bad  conductors,  such  as  wood,  paper,  or 
woollen  cloth,  they  will  not  readily  conduct  the  heat  from  the  kettlo 
to  the  hand. 


48  THE    EEASON    WHY. 


"Wisdom  is  the  principal  thing;   therefore  get  wisdom:  and  with  all  thy 
getting  get  understanding."— PROVEEBS  iv. 


129.  Will  a  kettle-holder,  being  a  lad  conductor,  sometimes 
conduct  heat  to  the  hand  ? 

Yes.  But  so  slowly  that  the  hand  will  noifeel  the  inconvenience 
of  too  much  heat. 

130.  Why  does   hot  metal  feel  hotter   than  heated  wool, 
though  they  may  both  be  of  the  same  degree  of  temperature  ? 

Because  metal  gives  out  heat  more  rapidly  than  wool,  by 
which  it  is  made  more  perceptible  to  our  feelings. 

131.  Which  would  become  cold  first — the  metal  or  the 
wool  ? 

The  wool,  because,  although  the  metal  conducts  heat  more 
rapidly,  to  a  substance  in  contact  with  it,  it  does  not  radiate  heat 
as  well  as  a  black  and  rough  substance. 

132.  Why  do  iron  articles  feel  intensely  cold  in  winter  ? 
Because  iron  is  one  of  the  best  conductors,  and  draws  off  heat 

from  the  hand  very  rapidly. 

133.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  sensation  called  cold  ? 
When  we  feel  cold,  heat  is  being  drawn  off  from  our  bodies. 

134.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  sensation  called  heat  ? 
When  we  feel  hot,  our  bodies  are  absorbing  heat  from  external 

causes. 

[The  condition  here  implied  is  that  of  health,  and  of  ordinary  circumstances. 
A  person  in  a  condition  of  fever,  suffering  from  intense  heat  arising  from  a 
diseased  state  of  the  blood,  could  not  be  said  to  be  absorbing  heat.  Nor  could 
such  a  description  apply  to  a  person  who,  by  a  very  rapid  walk,  has  raised  the 
temperature  of  his  body  considerably  above  its  natural  state,  by  the  internal 
combustion  which  has  already  been  described.  A  person  feeling  hot  in  bed, 
from  excessive  clothes,  feels  hot  from  the  development  of  Jieat  internally,  which 
is  not  conducted  away  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  maintain  the  natural  tempe- 
rature of  the  body.]  • 

135.  If  a  person,  sitting  before  afire-place,  without  afire, 
were  to  set  one  foot  upon  a  rug,  and  the  other  upon  the  stone 
hearth,  which  would  feel  the  colder  ? 

The  foot  on  the  stone,  because  stone  is  a  good  conductor,  anil 
would  conduct  the  warmth  of  the  foot  away  from  it. 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  49 


"The  earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  the  fulness  thereof;  the  world,  and  they  that 
dwell  therein."— PSALM  xxiv. 


136.  Wliat  does  the  hearth-stone  do  with  the  heat  that  it 
receives  ? 

It  delivers  it  to  the  surrounding  air,  and  to  any  other  bodies 
with  which  it  may  be  in  contact — and  as  it  parts  with  heat,  it  takes 
up  more  from  any  body  hotter  than  itself. 

137.  When  there  is  no  fire  in  a  room,  what  is  the  rela- 
tive temperature  of  the  various  things  in  the  room  ? 

They  are  all  of  the  same  temperature. 

138.  If  all  the  articles  in  the  room  are  of  the  same  tem- 
perature, why  do  some  feel  colder  than  others  ? 

Because  they  differ  in  their  relative  powers  of  conduction.  Those 
that  are  the  best  conductors  feel  coldest,  as  they  convey  away  the 
heat  of  the  hand  most  rapidly. 

[If  you  lay  your  hand  upon  the  woollen  table  cover,  or  upon  the  sleeve  of  your 
coat  or  mantle,  it  will  feel  neither  warm  nor  cold,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances. But  if  you  raise  your  hand  from  the  table  cover,  or  coat,  and  lay  it  on 
the  marble  mantel  piece,  the  mantel-piece  will  feel  cold.  If  now  you  return 
your  hand  from  the  mantel-piece  to  the  table  cover  or  coat,  a  sensation  of 
warmth  will  become  distinctly  perceptible.  This  will  afford  a  good  conception 
of  the  relative  powers  of  conduction  of  wool  and  marble.'] 

139.  Sow  long  does  a  substance  feel  cold  or  hot  to  the 
touch  ?  . 

Until  it  has  brought  the  part  touching  it  to  the  same  temperature 
as  itself. 

140.  Wlien  do  substances  feel  neither  hot  nor  cold  ? 
When  they  are  of  the  same  temperature  as  our  bodies. 

141.  Why,  under  these  circumstances,  do  they  feel  neither 
hot  nor  cold  ? 

Because  they  neither  take  heat  from,  nor  supply  it  to,  the 
body. 

142.  Which  would  feel  the  warmer,  when  the  fire  was 
lighted,  the  hearth-rug  or  the  hearth-stone  ? 

The  hearth-stone,  because  it  is  a  good  conductor,  and  would  not 
only  receive  heat  readily,  but  would  part  with  it  as  freely  (thereby 
3* 


50  THE    SEASON   WHY. 


Fire  and  hail ;  snow  and  vapour ;  stormy  wind  fulfilling  his  word."— 
PSALM  CXLVIII. 


making  its  heat  perceptible).  But  the  hearth-rug1,  being  a  bad 
conductor,  would  part  with  its  heat  very  slowly,  and  it  would  there- 
fore be  less  perceptible. 

143.  Would  the  hearth-stone  feel  hotter  than  the  hearth- 
rug though  both  were  of  the  same  temperature  ? 

It  would  feel  hotter  than  the  hearth-rug,  because  it  would  part 
with  its  heat  so  rapidly  that  it  would  be  the  more  perceptible. 

144.  But  if  the  hearth-stone  and  the  hearth-rug  were  both 
colder  than  the  hand,  which  would  feel  the  colder  of  the  two  ? 

Then  the  hearth-stone  would  feel  the  colder,  because,  being  a  good 
conductor,  it  would  take  heat  from  the  hand  more  freely  than  the 
hearth-rug-,  which  is  a  bad  conductor. 

145.  Why  would  the  hearth-stone  feel  comparatively  hotter 
in  the  one  case,  and  colder  in  the  other  ? 

Because,  being  a  good  conductor,  it  would  conduct  heat  rapidly 
to  the  hand  when  hot,  and  take  heat  rapidly  from  the  hand  when 
cold. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

146.  Which  are  the   better  conductors  of  heat,  fluids  or 
solids  ? 

Generally  speaking1,  solids,  especially  those  of  them  that  are  dense 
in  their  substance. 

147.  Why  are  dense  substances   the   best  conductors   of 
heat  ? 

Because  the  heat  more  readily  travels  from  particle  to  particle 
tin  til  it  pervades  the  mass. 

148.  Why  are  fluids  bad  conductors  of  heat  ? 

Because  of  the  want  of  density  in  their  bodies  ;  and  because  a 
portion  of  the  imbibed  heat  always  passes  off  from  fluids  by 
evaporation. 


THE    REASON    WHY.  51 


"  He  casteth  forth  his  ice  like  morsels :  who  can  stand  before  his  word."— 
PSALM  CXLVIT. 


149.  Why  are  woollen  fabrics  lad  conductors  of  heat  ? 
Because  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  air  occupying  the 

spaces  of  the  texture. 

150.  Is  air  a  good  or  a  lad  conductor  ? 

Air  is  a  bad  conductor,  and  it  chiefly  transmits  heat,  as  water 
does,  by  convection. 

151.  Is  water  a  good  or  a  lad  conductor  ? 

Water  is  an  indifferent  conductor,  but  it  is  a  letter  conductor 
than  air. 

152.  Why,  wlien  we  place  our  hands  in  water,  which,  may 
le  of  the  same  temperature  as  the  air,  does  the  water  fed 
some  degrees  colder  ? 

Because  water,  leing  a  letter  conductor  than  air,  takes  up  the 
warmth  of  the  hand  more  rapidly. 

153.  Why,  when  we  take  our  hands  out  of  water  do  they 
feel  warmer  ? 

Because  the  air  does  not  abstract  the  heat  of  the  hand  so  rapidly 
as  the  water  did,  and  the  change  in  the  degree  of  rapidity  with 
which  the  heat  is  abstracted  produces  a  sensation  of  increased 
loarmth. 

154.  Why  do  we  see  blocks  of  ice  wrapped  in  thick  flannel 
in  summer  time  ? 

Because  the  flannel,  being  a  non-conductor,  prevents  the  external 
heat  from  dissolving  the  ice. 

[Flannel  wrapped  around  a  warm  body  keeps  in  Us  heat;  and  wrapped 
around  a  cold  body,  prevents  heat  from  passing  into  it."] 

155.  Sow  do  we  know  that   air  is  not  a  good  conductor 
of  heat? 

Because,  in  still  air,  heat  would  travel  to  a  given  point  much 
more  rapidly,  and  in  greater  intensity,  through  even  an  indifferent 
solid  conductor,  than  it  would  through  the  air. 

156.  How  do  we  know  that  water  is  not  a  good  conductor 
of  heat? 


52  THE    REASON    WHY. 


As  snow  in  summer,  and  as  rain  in  harvest ;  so  honour  is  not  seemly  for  a 
fool." — Pitov.  xxvi. 


Because  in  a  deep  vessel  containing  ice,  and  with  heat  applied  at 
the  top,  some  portion  of  the  water  may  be  made  to  boil  before  the 
ice,  which  lies  a  little  under  the  surface,  is  melted. 

157.  Why  would  you  apply  the  heat  at  the  top,  in  this 
experiment  ? 

Because  in  heating-  water  it  expands  and  rises.  The  boiling  of 
water  is  caused  by  the  heated  water  ascending  from  the  bottom, 
and  the  colder  water  descending  to  occupy  its  place.  If  the  heat 
were  not  applied  at  the  top,  it  would  be  distributed  quickly  by 
convection,  but  not  by  conduction. 

158.  Why  are  bottles  of  hot  water,  used  as  feet-warmers, 
ivrapped  in  flannel  ? 

Because  the  flannel,  being  a  bad  conductor,  allows  the  heat  to 
pass  only  gently  from  the  bottle,  and  preserves  the  warmth  for  a 
much  longer  time. 

159.  Wliy  are  liot  rolls  sent  out  by  the  bakers,  wrapped 
up  in  flannel  ? 

Because  the  flannel,  being  a  bad  conductor,  does  not  carry  off 
rapidly  the  heat  of  the  rolls. 

160.  Why  is  it  said  that  snow  keeps  the  earth,  warm  ? 

Because  snow  is  a  bad  conductor,  and  prevents  the  frosty  air 
from  depriving  the  earth  of  its  warmth 

161.  Why    are   snow    huts    wliicli   the   Esquimaux   build 
found  to  be  warm  ? 

Because  snow,  being  a  bad  conductor,  keeps  in  the  internal  heat 
of  the  dwelling,  and  prevents  the  cold  outer  air  from  talcing  away 
its  warmth. 

162.  Why  is  snow,    leing  composed  of  congealed  water 
(and  water  being  a  better  conductor  than  air),  so  good  a  non- 
conductor ? 

Because  in  the  process  of  congealation  it  is  frozen  into  crystaline 
forms,  which,  being  collected  into  a  mass,  form  a  woolly  body,  thus 


THE    REASON    WHY.  53 


"He  givcth  snow  like  wool:  he  soattereth  the  hoar  frost  like . ashes."— 
PSALM;  CXLVII. 


proving  the  truthfulness  of  the  Bible   simile,   which  says,   God 
"  giveth  snow  like  wool." 


CRYSTALS  OF  SNOW,  AS  SEEN  THROUGH  A  MICROSCOPE.     FlG.  1. 

163.  Why  does  it  frequently  feel  warmer  after  a  frost  has 
set  in  ? 

Because,  in  the  act  of  congelation  a  great  deal  of  heat  is  given 
out,  and  taken  up  by  the  air,  and  thus  the  severity  of  the  cold 


164.  Why  is  it  frequently  colder  when  a  thaw  takes  place  ? 
Because,  in  the  process  of  thawing,  a  certain  amount  of  heat  is 

withdrawn  from  the  air,  and  enters  the  thawed  ice. 

165.  What  benefit  results  from  these  provisions  of  Nature  ? 
They  moderate  both  the  severity  of  frosts,  and  the  rapidity 

of   thaws,    which,  in    changeable    climates,  would    be    seriously 
detrimental  to  life,  and  to  vegetation. 

166.  Why  are  ftirs  and  woollens  worn  in  the  winter  ? 
Because,  being  non-conductors,  they  prevent  the  warmth  of  tho 

body  from  being  taken  up  ly  the  cold  air. 

167.  Why  are  the  skins  of  animals  usually  covered  with 
fur,  hair,  wool,  or  feathers  ? 


54  THE    EEASOX    WHY 


"Hesendeth  out  his  word,  and  melteth  them:  he  causeth  his  wind  to  blow, 
and  the  waters  to  flow." — PSALM  CXLVII. 


Because  their  coverings,  being  non-conductors  of  heat,  preserve 
the  warmth  of  the  bodies  of  the  animals. 

168.  How  is  the  greater  warmth  of  animals  provided  for 
in  the  winter  ? 

It  is  observed  that,  as  winter  approaches,  there  comes  a  short 
woolly  or  downy  growth,  which,  adding  to  the  non-conducting  pro- 
perty of  their  coats,  confines  their  animal  warmth. 

Tin  small  birds  during  winter,  let  the  external  colour  of  the  feathers  be 
what  it  may,  there  will  be  found  a  kind  of  Hack  down  next  their  bodies. 
Black  is  the  warmest  colour,  and  thn  purpose  here  is  to  keep  in  the  heat,  arising 
from  the  respiration  of  the  animal.] 

169.  ILow  is  warmth  provided  for  in  animals  that  have  no 
such  coats  ? 

They  are  furnished  with  a  layer  of  fat,  which  lies  underneath  the 
skin.  Fat  consists  chiefly  of  carbon,  and  is  a  non-conductor. 

170.  Why  are  summer  breezes  said  to  be  cool  ? 

Because,  as  they  pass  over  the  heated  surface  of  the  body,  they 
bear  away  a  part  of  its  heat. 

171.  Why  is  a  still  summer  air  said  to  be  sultry  ? 
Because,   being   heated  by  the    sun's  rays,  and  being  a    lad 

conductor,  it  does  not  relieve  the  body  by  carrying  off  its  heat. 

172.  Why  does  fanning  the  face  make  it  feel  cooler? 
Because,  by  inducing  currents  of  air  to  pass  over  the  face,  a  part 

of  the  excessive  heat  is  taken  up  and  carried  away. 

173.  Why  docs  perspiration  cool  the  body  ? 

Because  it  takes  up  a  part  of  the  heat,  and,  evaporating,  carries 
it  into  the  air. 

174.  Why  does  blowing  upon  hot  tea  cool  it  ? 

Because  it  directs  currents  of  air  over  the  surface  of  the  tea,  and 
these  currents  take  up  a  part  of  the  heat  and  bear  it  away. 

175.  Why  does  air  in  motion  feel  cooler  than  air  that  is 

still  ? 

Because  each  wave  of  air  carries  away  a  certain  portion  of  heat 


THE   BEASON   WHY. 


"  Though.  I  walk  in  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death  I  will  fear  no  evil,  for  thou 
art  with  me." — PSALM  xxur. 


and  being  followed  by  another  portion  of  air,  a  further  amount  of 
heat  is  borne  away. 

176.  Is  the  atmosphere  ever  as  hot  as  the  human  body  ? 

Not  in  this  country.  On  the  hottest  day  it  is  10  or  12  deg. 
cooler  than  the  temperature  of  our  bodies. 

177.  What  is  the  highest  degree  of  artificial  heat  which 
man  has  been  known  to  bear  ? 

A  man  may  be  surrounded  with  air  raised  to  the  temperature  of 
300  deg.  (the  boiling  point  being  212),  and  yet  not  have  the  heat 
of  his  body  raised  more  than  two  or  three  degrees  above  its  natural 
temperature  of  from  97  deg.  to  100  deg. 

178.  Why  may  man  endure  this  degree  of  heat  for  a  short 
time  ivithout  injury  ? 

Because  the  skin,  and  the  vessels  of  fat  that  lie  underneath  it, 
are  bad  conductors  of  heat. 

And  because  perspiration  passing  from  the  skin  and  evaporating, 
would  bear  the  heat  away  as  fast  as  it  was  received. 

Because,  also,  the  vital  principle  (life)  exercises  a  mysterious  influ- 
ence in  the  preservation  of  living  bodies  from  physical  influences. 

179.  Is  the  air  ever  hot  enough,  in  any  part  of  the  world, 
to  destroy  life  ? 

Yes.  The  hot  winds  of  the  Arabian  deserts,  which  are  called 
simooms,  scatter  death  and  desolation  in  their  track,  withering  trees 
and  shrubs,  and  burying  them  under  waves  of  hot  sand.  When 
camels  see  the  approach  of  a  simoom  they  rush  to  the  nearest  tree 
or  bush,  or  to  some  projecting  rock,  where  they  place  their  heads  in 
an  opposite  direction  to  that  from  which  the  wind  blows,  and  en- 
deavour to  escape  its  terrible  violence.  The  traveller  throws  him- 
self on  the  ground  on  the  lee  side  of  the  camel,  and  screens 
his  head  from  the  fiery  blast  within  the  folds  of  his  robe.  But  fre- 
quently both  man  and  beast  fall  a  prey  to  the  terrible  simoom. 

180.  Why  are  these  hot  winds  so  terrible  in  their  effects  ? 
Because,  being  in  motion,  they  ssarch  their  way  to  every  part  of 


56  THE   EEASON    WHY. 


1  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  knowledge :  but  fools  despise  wisdom 
and  instruction."— PKOVEKBS  I. 


the  body,  and  passing  over  it  leave  some  portion  of  their  heat  be- 
hind, which  is  again  followed  by  additional  heat  from  every  fresJi 
blast  of  wind. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

181.  What  is  Eadiation  ? 

The  radiation  of  heat  is  a  motion  of  the  particles,  in  a  series  of 
rays,  diverging  in  every  direction  from  a  heated  body. 

182.  What  is  this  phenomena  of  Radiation  understood  to 
arise  from  ? 

From  a  strongly  repulsive  power,  possessed  by  particles  of  heat, 
by  which  they  are  excited  to  recede  from  each  other  with  great 
velocity. 

183.  What  is  the  greatest  source  of  Radiation  ? 

The  sun,  which  sends  forth  rays  of  loth  light  and  heat  in  all 
directions. 

184.  When  does  a  body  radiate  heat  ? 

When  it  is  surrounded  by  a  medium  which  is  a  bad  conductor 

185.  When  we  stand  before  a  fire,  does  the  heat  reach  us 
by  conduction  or  by  radiation  ? 

By  radiation. 

186.  What  becomes  of  the  heat  that  is  radiated  from  one 
body  to  another  ? 

It  is  either  absorbed,  by  those  bodies,  or  transmitted  through  them 
and  passed  to  other  bodies  by  conduction,  or  diffused  by  convection, 
or  returned  by  refiection. 

187.  How  do  we  know  that  heat  is  diffused  by  radiation  ? 

If  we  set  a  metal  plate  (or  any  other  body,  though  metal  is 
host  for  the  experiment)  before  the  fire,  rays  of  heat  will  fall  upon 
it.  If  we  turn  the  plate  at  a  slight  angle,  and  place  another 


THE    HEASON    WHY.  57 


"  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom  :  a  good  understanding  have 
all  they  that  do  his  commandments."  -PsALii  cxi. 


object  in  a  line  with  it,  we  shall  find  that  the  plate  will  reflect  the 
rays  it  lias  received  by  radiation,  on  to  the  object  so  placed ;  but  if 
we  place  an  object  between  the  fire  and  the  plate,  we  shall  find 
that  the  rays  of  heat  will  be  intercepted,  and  that  the  latter  can  no 
longer  reflect  heat. 

188.  Does  the  agitation  of  the  air  interfere  with  the  direc- 
tion of  rays  of  heat  ? 

.  It  has  been  found  that  the  agitation  of  the  air  does  not  affect  the 
direction  of  rays  of  heat. 

189.  Why,  then,  if  a  current  of  air  passes  through  a  space 
across  which  heat  is  radiating.,  does  the  air  become  warmer  ? 

Because  it  takes  up  some  portion  of  the  heat,  but  it  does  not 
alter  the  direction  of  the  rays. 

[This  is  clearly  illustrated  by  reference  to  rays  of  light  which  are  seen  under 
many  circumstances.  But  they  are  never  bent,  moved,  nor  in  any  way  affected 
by  the  wind.] 

190.  Why  will  not  a  current  of  air  disturb  the  rays  of 
heat,  just  as  it  would  a  spiders  web,  or  threads  ofsilJe? 

Because  heat  is  an  imponderable  agent,  that  is,  something  which 
cannot  be  acted  upon  by  the  ordinary  physical  agencies.  It  has 
no  weight,  presents  110  substantial  body,  and  is,  in  these  latter 
respects,  similar  to  light  and  electricity. 

191.  What  other  sources  of  radiation  of  heat  are  there 
besides  the  sun  and  thejire  ? 

The  earth,  and  all  minor  bodies,  are,  in  some  degree,  radiators 
of  heat. 

192.  What  substances  are  the  best  radiators  ? 

All  rough  and  dark  coloured  substances  and  surfaces  are  the 
best  radiators  of  heat. 

193.  What  substances  are  the  worst  radiators  of  heat  ? 

All  smooth,  bright,  and  light  coloured  surfaces  are  bad  radiators 
of  heat. 

[Dr.  Stark,  of  Edinburgh,  has  proved,  by  a  series  of  experiments,  the  influence 
which  the  colours  of  bodies  have  upon  the  velocity  of  radiation.  He  surrounded 

3* 


58  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


*  Say  unto  wisdom,  Thou  art  my  sister ;  and  call  understanding  thy  kins- 
woman."— PROTEBBS  vii. 


the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  successively  with  equal  weights  of  black,  red,  and 
white  wool,  and  placed  it  in  a  glass  tube,  which  was  heated  to  the  temperature 
of  180  deg.  by  immersion  in  hot  water.  The  tube  was  then  cooled  down  to  50 
deg.  by  immersion  in  cold  water ;  the  black  cooled  in  21  minutes,  the  red  in  26 
minutes,  and  the  white  in  27  minutes.] 

194.  If  you  wished  to  keep  water  hot  for  a  long  time,  should 
you  put  it  into  a  bright  metal  jug,  or  into  a  dark  earthenware 
one? 

You  should  put  it  into  a  bright  metal  jug,  because,  being  a  lad 
rzdiaior,  it  would  not  part  readily  with  the  heat  of  the  water. 

195.  Why  would  not  the  dark  earthenware  jug  keep  the 
water  hot  as  long  as  the  bright  metal  one  ? 

Because  the  particles  of  earthenware  being  rough,  and  of  dark 
colour,  they  radiate  heat  freely,  and  the  water  would  thereby  be 
quickly  cooled. 


CHAPTER  X. 

196.  But  if  (as  stated  in  the  Lessons  upon  Conduction) 
metal  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat  than  stone  or  earthenware, 
why  does  not  the  metal  jug  conduct  away  the  heat  of  the  water 
sooner  than  the  earthemvare  jug  ? 

It  would  do  so,  if  it  were  in  contact  with  another  conductor  ; 
but,  being  surrounded  by  air,  which  is  a  bad  conductor,  the  heat 
must  pass  off  by  radiation,  and  as  bright  metal  surfaces  are  bad 
radiators,  the  metal  jug  would  retain  the  heat  of  the  water  longer 
than  the  earthenware  one. 

197.  Supposing  a  red-hot  cannon  ball  to  be  suspended  by  a 
chain  from  the  ceiling  of  a  room,  how  would  its  heat  escape  ? 

Almost  entirely  by  radiation.  But  if  you  were  to  rest  upon  the 
ball  a  cold  bar  of  iron,  a  part  of  the  heat  would  be  drawn  off  by 
conduction.  Warm  air  would  rise  from  around  the  ball,  and, 
moving  upwards,  would  distribute  some  of  the  heat  by  convection. 


THE   REASON   WHY.  59 


;  T  will  teach  vou  by  the  hand  of  God ;  that  which  is  with  the  Almighty  will  I 
not  conceal."— JOB  xxvn. 


And  some  of  its  rays,  falling  upon  a  mirror,  or  any  other  bright 
surface,  might  be  diffused  by  reflection. 

198.  Do  some  substances  absorb  heat? 

Yes ;  those  substances  which  are  the  best  radiators  are  also  the 
best  absorbers  of  heat. 

199.  Why  does  scratching  a  bright  metal  surface  increase 
its  power  of  radiation  ? 

Because  every  irregularity  of  the  surface  acts  as  a  point  of 
radiation,  or  an  outlet  by  which  the  heat  escapes. 

200.  Why  does  a  bright  metal  tea-pot  produce  better  tea 
than  a  brown  or  black  earthenware  one  ? 

Because  bright  metal  radiates  but  little  heat,  therefore  the 
water  is  kept  hot  much  longer,  and  the  strength  of  the  tea  is 
extracted  by  the  heat. 

201.  But  if  the  earthenware  tea-pot  were  set  by  the  fire, 
why  would  it  then  make  the  best  tea  ? 

Because  the  dark  earthenware  tea-pot  is  a  good  absorber  of  heat, 
and  the  heat  it  would  absorb  from  the  fire  would  more  than 
counterbalance  the  loss  by  radiation. 

202.  How  would  the  bright  metal  tea-pot  answer  if  set  upon 
the  hob  by  the  fire-? 

The  bright  metal  tea-pot  would  probably  absorb  less  heat  than  it 
would  radiate.  Therefore  it  would  not  answer  so  well,  being  set 
upon  the  hob,  as  the  earthenware  tea-pot. 

203.  Why  should  dish  covers  be  plain  in  form,  and  have 
bright  surfaces  ? 

Because,  being  bright  and  smooth,  they  will  not  allow  heat  to 
escape  by  radiation. 

204.  Why  should  the  bottoms  and  bade  parts  of  kettles  and 
saucepans  be  allowed  to  remain  black  ? 

Because  a  thin  coating  of  soot  acts  as  &  good  aosorber  of  heat, 
Wid  overcomes  the  non-absorbing  quality  of  the  bright  surface. 


60  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


'And  the  foolish  said  uuto  the  wise,  Give  us  of  your  oil,  lor  our  lamps  are 
gone  out. 


205.  But  why  should  soot  be  prevented  from  accumulating 
in  flakes  at  the  'bottom  and  sides  of  kettles  and  saucepans  T 

Because,  although  soot  is  a  good  absorber  of  heat,  it  is  a  very 
bad  conductor  ;  an  accumulation  of  it,  therefore,  would  cause  a  waste 
of  fuel,  by  retarding  the  effects  of  heat. 

206.  Why  should  the  lids  and  fronts  of  kettles  and  sauce- 
pans be  kept  bright  ? 

Because  bright  metal  will  not  radiate  heat ;  therefore,  the  heat 
which  is  taken  up  readily  through  the  absorbing  and  conducting 
power  of  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  is  kept  in  and  economised  by  the 
non-radiating  property  of  the  bright  top  and  front. 

207.  Does  cold  radiate  as  well  as  heat  ? 

It  was  once  thought  that  cold  radiated  as  well  as  heat.  But  a 
mass  of  ice  can  only  be  said  to  radiate  cold,  by  its  radiating  heat 
in  less  abundance  than  that  which  is  emitted  from  other  bodies 
surrounding  it.  It  is,  therefore,  incorrect  to  speak  of  the 
radiation  of  cold. 


CHAPTER  XL 

208.  Why,  if  you  hold  a  piece  of  looking-glass  at  an  angle 
towards  the  sun,  will  light  fall  upon  an*  object  opposite  to  the 
looking-glass  ? 

Because  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  reflected  by  the  looking-glass. 

209.  Why,  when  we  stand  be/bre  a  mirror,  do  we  see  our 
features  therein  ? 

Because  the  rays  of  light  that  fall  upon  us  are  reflected  upon  the 
bright  surface  of  the  mirror. 

210.'  WJiy,  if  a  plate  of  Iright  metal  were  held  sideways 
before  ajire,  would  heat  fall  upon  an  object  opposite  to  the 
plate  ? 


THE   HEASON    WHY.  61 


'  But  the  wise  answered  saying,  Not  so ;  lest  there  be  not  enough  for  us  and 
you :  but  go  ye  rather  to  them  that  sell,  and  buy  for  yourselves."— MATT.  xxv. 

Because  rays  of  heat  may  be  reflected  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
lays  of  light. 

21 1.  Why  would  not  the  same  effect  arise  if  the  plate  were 
of  a  black  or  dark  substance  ? 

Because  black  and  dark  substances  are  not  good  reflectors  of 
heat. 

212.  What  are  the  lest  reflectors  of  heat  ? 

Smooth,  light-coloured,  and  highly  polished  surfaces,  especially 
those  of  metal. 

213.  Why  does  meat  become  cooked  more  thoroughly  and 
quickly  when  a  tin  screen  is  placed  before  the  fire  ? 

Because  the  bright  tin  reflects  the  rays  of  heat  back  again  to  the 
meat. 

214.  Wliy  is  reflected  heat  less  intense  than  the  primary 
heat  ? 

Because  it  is  impossible  to  collect  all  the  rays,  and  also  because  a 
portion  of  the  caloric,  imparting  heat  to  the  rays,  is  absorbed  by  the 
air,  and  by  the  various  other  bodies  with  which  the  rays  come  in 
contact. 

215.  Can  heat  be  reflected  in  any  great  degree  of  intensity? 

Yes ;  to  such  a  degree  that  inflammable  matters  may  be  ignited 
by  it.  If  a  cannon  ball  be  made  red  hot,  and  then  be  placed  in  an 
iron  stand  between  two  bright  reflectors,  inflammable  materials, 
placed  in  a  proper  position  to  catch  the  reflected  rays,  will  ignite 
from  the  heat. 

There  is  a  curious  and  an  exceptional  fact  with  reference  to  reflected  heat, 
for  which  we  confess  that  we  are  unable  to  give  "  The  Reason  Why."  It  is 
found  that  snow,  which  lies  near  the  trunks  of  trees  or  the  base  of  upright 
stones,  melts  before  that  which  is  at  a  distance  from  them,  though  the  sun  may 
shine  equally  upon  both.  If  a  blackened  card  is  placed  upon  ice  or  snow  under 
the  sun's  rays,  the  frozen  body  underneath  it  will  be  thawed  before  that  winch 
surrounds  it.  But  if  we  reflect  the  sun's  rays  from  a  metal  surface,  the  result  is 
directly  contrary — the  exposed  snow  is  the  first  to  melt,  leaving  the  card 
standing  as  upon  a  pyramid.  Snow  melts  under  heat  which  is  reflected  from  tho 
trees  or  stones  while  it  withstands  the  effect  of  the  direct  solar  raw.?.  la 
passing  through  a  cemetery  this  winter  (1857),  when  the  snow  lay  deep,  we 


(32  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


"  The  light  of  the  righteous  rejoiceth,  but  the  lamp  of  the  wicked  shall  be  put 
out."— PEOVERBS  xm. 


were  struck  with  the  circumstance  that  the  snow  in  front  of  the  head-stones 
facing  the  sun  was  completely  dissolved,  and,  in  nearly  every  instance,  the 
space  on  which  the  snow  had  melted  assumed  a  coffin-like  shape.  This  forced 
itself  so  much  upon  our  attention  that  we  remained  some  time  to  endeavour  to 
analyse  the  phenomena ;  and  it  was  not  until  we  remembered  the  curious  effect 
of  reflected  heat  that  we  could  account  for  it.  It  is  obvious  that  the  rays  falling 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  head-stone  on  to  ihefoot  of  the  grave  would  be  less 
powerful  than  those  that  radiated  from  the  centre  of  the  stone  to  the  centre  of 
the  grave.  Hence  it  was  that  the  heat  dissolved  at  the  foot  of  the  grave  only  a 
narrow  piece  of  snow,  which  widened  towards  the  centre,  and  narrowed  again 
as  it  approached  the  foot  of  the  head-stone,  where  the  lines  of  radiation  would 
naturally  decrease.  Such  a  phenomena  would  prove  sufficient  to  raise 
superstition  in  untutored  minds. 

216.  Are  good  reflectors  of  heat  also  good  absorbers  ? 

No ;  for  reflectors  at  once  send  back  the  heat  which  they  receive, 
while  absorbers  retain  it.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  reflectors 
cannot  be  good  absorbers. 

217.  Sow  do  fire-screens  contribute  to  keep  rooms  cool  ? 

Because  they  turn  away  from  the  persons  in  the  room  rays  of 
heat  which  would  otherwise  make  the  warmth  excessive. 

218.  Why  are  white  and  light  articles  of  clothing  cool  ? 
Because  they  reflect  the  rays  of  heat. 

[White.,  as  a  colour,  is  also  a  bad  absorber  and  conductor."] 

219.  Why  is  the  air  often  found  excessively  hot  in  chalk 
districts  ? 

Because  the  soil  reflects  upon  objects  near  to  it  the  heat  of  the 
solar  rays. 

220.  How  does  the  heat  of  the  surfs  rays  ultimately  lecome 
diffused  ? 

It  is  first  absorbed  by  the  earth.  Generally  speaking,  the  earth 
absorbs  heat  by  day,  and  radiates  it  by  night.  In  this  way  an 
equilibrium  of  temperature  is  maintained,  which  we  should  not 
otherwise  have  the  advantage  of. 

221.  Does  not  the  air  derive  its  heat  directly  from  the 
sun's  rays  ? 

Only  partially.  It  is  estimated  that  the  air  absorbs  only  one- 
third  of  the  caloric  of  the  sun's  rays— that  is  to  say,  that  a  ray  of 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  63 

"As  for  tie  earth,  out  of  it  cometh  bread  ;  and  under  it  is  turned  up  as  it  were 
fire."— JOB  xxvm. 

solar  heat,  entering  our  atmosphere  at  its  most  attenuated  limit 
(a  height  supposed  to  be  about  fifty  miles),  would,  in  passing  through 
the  atmosphere  to  the  earth,  part  with  only  one-third  of  its  calorific 
element. 

222.  What  becomes  of  the  remaining  two-thirds  of  the 
solar  lieat  ? 

They  are  absorbed  chiefly  by  the  earth,  the  great  medium  of 
calorific  absorption;  but  some  portions  are  taken  up  by  living 
things,  both  animal  and  vegetable.  When  the  rays  of  heat  strike 
upon  the  earth's  surface,  they  are  passed  from  particle  to  particle 
into  the  interior  of  the  earth's  crust.  Other  portions  are  distributed 
through  the  air  and  water  by  convection,  and  a  third  portion  is 
thrown  back  into  space  by  radiation.  These  latter  phenomena 
will  be  duly  explained  as  we  proceed. 

223.  How  do  we  know  that  heat  is  absorbed,  and  conducted 
into  the  internal  earth  ? 

It  is  found  that  there  is  a  given  depth  beneath  the  surface  of  tho 
globe  at  which  an  equal  temperature  prevails.  The  depth  increases 
as  we  travel  south  or  north  from  the  equator,  and  corresponds  with 
the  shape  of  the  earth's  surface,  sinking  under  the  valleys,  and 
rising  under  the  hills. 

221.  Why  may  we  not  understand  that  this  internal  heat 
of  the  earth  arises,  as  has  been  supposed  by  many  philosophers, 
from  internal  combustion  ? 

Because  recent  investigations  have  thrown  considerable  and 
satisfactory  light  upon  the  subject.  It  lias  been  ascertained  that 
the  internal  temperature  of  the  earth  increases  to  a  certain  depth, 
one  degree  in  every  fifty  feet.  But  that  below  that  depth  the 
temperature  begins  to  decline,  and  continues  to  do  so  with  every 
increase  of  depth. 

225.  Do  plants  absorb  heat? 

Yes.  They  both  absorb  and  radiate  heat,  under  varying  circntn- 
stances.  The  majestic  tree,  the  meek  flower,  the  unpretending 
grass,  all  perform  a  part  in  the  grand  alchemy  of  nature. 


64  THE   REASON   WHY. 


"  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow ;  they  toil  not,  neither  do  they 

spin. 


When  we  gaze  upon  a  rose  it  is  not  its  beauty  alone  that  should  impress  us  : 
every  moment  of  that  flower's  life  is  devoted  to  the  fulfilment  of  its  part  in  the 
grand  scheme  of  the  universe.  It  decomposes  the  rays  of  soiar  light,  and  scuds 
the  red  rays  only  to  our  eyes.  It  absorb  4  or  radiates  heat,  according  to  the 
temperature  of  the  aerial  mantle  that  wraps  alike  the  flower  and  the  man.  It 
distils  the  gaseous  vapours,  and  restores  to  man  the  vital  air  on  which  he  lives. 
It  takes  into  its  own  substance,  and  incorporates  with  its  own  frame,  the  car- 
bon and  the  hydrogen  of  which  man  has  no  immediate  need.  It  drinks  the 
dew-drop  or  the  rain  drop,  and  gives  forth  its  sweet  odour  as  a  thanksgiving. 
And  when  it  dies,  it  preaches  eloquently  to  beauty,  pointing  to  the  end  that  is 
to  come  I 


CHAPTER  XII. 

226.  Sow  do  we  know  that  plants  operate  upon  the  solar 
and  atmospheric  neat  ? 

A  delicate  thermometer,  placed  among  the  leaves  and  petals  of 
flowers,  will  at  once  establish  the  fact,  not  only  that  flowers  and 
plants  have  a  temperature  differing  from  that  of  the  external  air, 
but  that  the  temperature  varies  in  different  plants  according  to  the 
hypothetical  or  supposed  requirements,  of  their  existences  and 
conditions. 

227.  What  is  the  chief  cause  of  variation  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  flowers  ? 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  their  temperature  is  affected  by 
their  colours. 

228.  WTiy  is  it  supposed  that  the  colour  of  a  flower  influ- 
ences its  temperature  / 

Because  it  is  found  by  experiment  that  the  colours  of  bodies  bear 
an  important  relation  to  their  properties  respecting  heat,  and  hold 
some  analogy  to  the  relation  of  colours  to  light. 

[If  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  pieces  of  woollen  cloth,  of  equal  size 
Mid  thickness,  and  differing  only  in  colour,  are  laid  upon  the  surface  of  the 
snow,  near  to  each  other,  it  will  be  found  that  the  relation  of  colour  to 
temperature  will  be  ns  follows : — In  a  few  hours  the  black  cloth  will  have 
dissolved  so  much  of  the  snow  beneath  it,  as  to  sink  deep  below  the  surface; 
the  blue  will  have  proved  nearly  as  warm  as  the  black ;  the  brown  will  have 
dissolved  less  of  the  snow ;  the  red  less  than  the  brown ;  and  the  ivhite  the  least. 


THE    REASON    WHY.  65 


And  yet  I  say  unto  you,  that  even  Solomon,  in  all  his  glory,  was  not  arrayed 
like  one  of  these."— MATT.  vi. 


or  none  at  all.  Siir.ilar  experiments  may  be  tried  with  reference  to  the  conden- 
sation of  dew,  &c.  And  it  will  be  uniformly  found  that  the  colour  of  a  body 
materially  affects  its  powers  of  absorption  and  of  radiation} 

229.  Wily  do  we  know  that  these  effects  are  not  the  result 
of  light? 

Because  they  would  occur,  in  just  the  same  order,  in  the  absence 
of  light. 

230.  Wliy  are  dark  coloured  dresses    usually   worn  in 
winter,  and  light  in  summer  ? 

Because  black  absorbs  heat,  and  therefore  becomes  warm  ;  while 
ight  colours  do  not  absorb  heat  in  the  same  degree,  and  therefore 
they  remain  cool. 

231.  Why  do  iron  articles,  even  when  near  fire,  usually 
feel  cool  ? 

Because  they  are  bad  absorbers,  and  do  not  take  up  heat  freely, 
unless  they  are  in  contact  with  a  hot  body. 

232.  How  is  heat  diffused  through  the  atmosphere  ? 

By  convection.  The  warmth  radiating  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth  warms  the  air  in  contact  with  it ;  the  air  expands,  and  becom- 
ing lighter,  flies  upwards,  bearing  with  it  the  caloric  which  it  holds, 
and  diffusing  it  in  its  course. 

233.  Sow  do  the  waters  of  the  ocean  become  heated? 
Chiefly  by  convection.    Nearly  all  the  heat  which  the  sun  sheds 

upon  the  ocean  is  borne  away  from  its  surface  by  evaporation,  or  is 
radiated  back  into  the  atmosphere.  But  the  ocean  gathers  its  heat 
by  convection  from  the  earth.  It  girdles  the  shores  of  tropical 
lands  where,  being  warmed  to  a  high  degree  of  temperature,  it  sets 
across  the  Atlantic  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  exercises  an 
important  influence  upon  the  temperature  of  our  latitude. 

234.  What  is  the  cause  of  winds  ? 

Currents  of  air,  and  winds,  are  the  result  of  convection.  The  air, 
heated  by  the  high  temperature  of  the  tropics,  ascends,  while  the 
colder  air  of  the  temperate  and  the  frigid  zones  Hows  towards  the 
equator  to  supply  its  place. 


66  THE   REASON    WHY. 


1  Give  unto  the  Lord  the  glory  due  unto  his  name ;  worship  the  Lord  in  tha 
beauty  of  holiness."-  PSALM  xxix. 


235.  What  is  the  cause  of  sea  Ireezes  ? 

Sea  breezes  are  also  the  result  of  convection.  The  land,  under 
the  heat  of  the  day's  sunshine,  becomes  of  a  hig-h  temperature,  and 
the  expanded  air  on  its  surface  fries  away  towards  the  ocean.  As 
the  sun  goes  down,  the  earth  cools  again,  and  the  air  flies  back  to 
find  its  equilibrium. 

Many  countries  by  the  sea  are  subjected  to  these  periodical  breezes,  known 
as  either  "  land"  or  "  sea  breezes,"  according  to  their  direction.  About  eight 
o'clock  in  the  morning  au  aerial  current  begins  to  flow  from  the  sea  towards 
the  land,  and  continues  until  about  three  o'clock  in  the  day ;  then  the  current 
takes  a  reverse  direction,  flowing  from  the  land  to  the  sea.  This  it  continues  to 
do  throughout  the  night,  until  the  time  of  sun-rise,  when  a  temporary  calm 
ensues. 

236.  Why  does  a  soap  bubble  ascend  in  the  air  ? 

Because,  being-  filled  with  warm  air,  it  is  lighter  than  the 
surrounding  medium,  and  therefore  ascends. 

237.  Why  does  the  bubble  fall  after  it  has  been  in  the  air 
some  time  ? 

Because  the  air  contained  in  it  has  become  cool,  and,  as  it 
contains  carbonic  acid  gas,  it  is  heavier  than  the  air. 

233.  What  became  of  the  warmth  at  first  contained  in  the 
bubble  ? 

It  has  been  distributed  in  the  air  through  which  the  bubble 
passed. 

239.  IVliat  does  this  simple  illustration  of  the  distribution 
of  war  mill  explain  ? 

It  explains  the  law  of  convection,  or  heat  distribution,  over  the 
surface  of  the  globe. 

240.  Why  does  air  ascend  the  chimney  ? 

Because,  being  heated,  it  becomes  lighter  than  the  surrounding 
medium,  and  therefore  flies  upwards,  through  the  outlet  provided 
for  it. 

211.  WTiy  does  air  fly  from  the  doors  and  windows  towards 
the  fire-place  ? 


THE   BEASON   WHY.  G7 


'How  much  better  is  it  to  get  wisdom  than  gold?  and  to  get  understanding 
rather  to  be  chosen  than  silver."— PROVERBS  xvi. 


Because,  as  the  warm  air  flies  away,  cold  air  rushes  in  to  occupy 
its  place. 

242.  What  does  this  example  of  the  motion  of  the  air  in 
our  rooms  explain  ? 

It  explains  the  movement  of  volumes  of  air  by  convection,  and 
illustrates  the  origin  of  breezes  and  winds. 

243.  What  is  the  chief  effect  of  this  law  of  convection  ? 
Under  its  influence  air  and  water  are  the  great  equalisers  of  solar 

heat,  rendering  the  earth  agreeable  to  living  things,  and  suited  to 
the  laws  of  their  existence. 

Owing,  also,  to  this  law  of  convection,  the  constituents  of  the  air 
are  equalised.  The  breath  of  life,  supplied  by  the  purer  oxygen  of 
the  "  sunny  south,"  is  diffused  in  salubrious  gales  over  the  wintry 
climes  of  the  north.  And  the  waters,  evaporated  from  the  bosom 
of  the  central  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Pacific,  are  borne  across  vast 
continents,  and  poured  down  in  fertilising  showers  upon  distant 
lands. 

To  the  educated  mind,  nothing  is  too  simple  to  merit  attention.  To  the 
ignorant,  few  things  are  sufficiently  attractive  to  excite  curiosity.  Knowledge 
enables  us  to  estimate  the  varied  phenomena  that  are  hourly  arising  around 
us,  and  to  see,  even  in  the  most  trifling  effects,  illustrations  of  those  great 
causes  and  consequences  that  govern  with  mighty  power  the  material  world. 
Man,  sitting  by  his  firo-side,  is  enabled  to  witness  the  operation  of  some  of 
nature's  grandest  laws :  light  and  heat  are  around  him ;  conduction,  radiation, 
reflection,  absorption,  and  convection  of  heat  are  all  going  on  before  him  ;  little 
winds  are  sweeping  by  his  footstool,  and  warm  currents,  with  miniature  clouds 
folded  in  their  arms,  are  passing  upward  before  his  view.  Chemical  changes 
are  going  on;  the  solid  rock  of  coal  disappears,  flying  away  as  an  invisible 
gas.  The  little  "  hills  are  melted,"  and  hard  stones  have  been  converted  into 
'•  fervent  heat."  Although  some  of  these  changes  are  imperceptible  to  the  eye, 
they  are  manifest  to  the  educated  mind;  and  the  pleasures  of  philosophical 
observation  are  as  sweet  as  a  poet's  dreams. 


CHAPTER  XIIL 

244.   Why  will  a  piece  of  paper,  held  three  or  four  inches 
over  the  flame  of  a  candle,  become  scorched? 


68 


THE    REASON   WHY. 


"  Neither  do  men  light  a  candle,  and  put  it  under  a  bushel,  but  on  a  candle- 
stick ;  and  it  giveth  light  unto  all  that  are  in  the  house."— MATT.  v. 

Because  the  hot  air  and  gas  produced  by  the  burning  of  the 
candle  ascends  rapidly. 

245.  Why  will  a  piece  of  paper  helc,  about  an  inch  below 
the  flame  of  a  candle  scarcely  become  warmed? 

Because  the  heat  ascends  ;  and  only  a  little  of  it  falls  upon  the 
paper,  and  that  by  radiation. 

246.  Why  does  the  lower  part  of 
the  flame  of  a  candle  (D)  burn  of  a 
blue  colour  ? 

Because  the  hydrogen  of  the  tallow, 
having  a  stronger  affinity  for  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air  than  carbon  has,  ignites 
first.  Pure  hydrogen  burns  with  a 
bluish  flame. 

247.  Why  does  the  middle  of  the 
flame  (c)  look  dark  ? 

Because  it  is  occupied  with  gaseous 
vapours,  derived  from  the  tallow,  which 
have  not  yet  ignited. 

248.  Why  does  the  upper  part  of 
the    -flame    (v)    produce    a   bright 
yelloiu  light? 

Because  it  is  in  this  part  of  the 
flame  that  the  hydrogen  of  the  candle, 
and  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  combine,  and 
there  is  just  sufficient  carbon  mixed 
with  the  hydrogen  to  improve  its  illuminating  power. 

249.  Why  is  there  a  fringe  of  pale  light  (A)  around  the 
upper  part  of  the  flame  ? 

Because  some  of  the  carbon  escapes  in  a  state  of  incandesence, 
and  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  air  it  combines  with  oxygen,  and  so 
forms  carbonic  acid  gas. 

If  any  dark  bodj,  such  as  the  bladi  of  a  knife,  be  held  between  the  eye  and 


THE   REASON   WHY.  69 


"  How  oft  is  the  candle  of  the  wicked  put  out  ?   and  how  oft  cometh  their 
destruction  upon  them  ?"— JOB  .xxi. 


-  the  flame  of  the  candle,  so  as  to  shut  off  the  light  of  the  more  luminous  part, 
the  pale  fringe  around  the  flame  will  be  found  distinctly  perceptible. 
IncUndesence  means  heated  to  whiteness. 

250.  Why  does  the  -flame  terminate  in  a  point  ? 
Because  cold  air  rushes  towards  the  flame  in  every  direction,  and 

is  carried  upward.  At  the  point  where  the  flame  terminates  the 
cold  currents  have  so  reduced  the  temperature  that  combustion  can 
no  longer  be  sustained. 

251.  Why,  if  you   hold  any  thing   immediately  over  the 
flame,  will  the  Jlame  lengthen  ? 

Because,  by  preventing  the  rapid  escape  of  the  heated  air,  you 
maintain  a  temperature  which  increases  the  combustion  at  the 
point  of  the  flcime. 

252.  Wliy  should  persons  whose  clothes  takejire,   throw 
themselves  down  ? 

Because  flame  spreads  most  rapidly  in  an  upward  direction. 

253.  WTiy  should  persons  whose  clothes  are  on  jire  roll 
slowly  about  when  they  are  down  ? 

Because  they  thereby  p ress  out  the  fire. 

254.  Why  does  pressing  a  Jlame  or  a  spark  put  it  out  ? 
Because  it  prevents  the  contact  of  the  flame  or  spark  with  the 

oxygen  of  the  air. 

Extinguishers  put  out  tha  flame  of  candles  in  the  same  manner.  A  person 
dies  from  "suffocation"  through  the  absence  of  oxygen;  and  it  is  literally 
practicable  to  "  suffocate  "  afire. 

255.  Why  does  the  ivick  turn  Hack  as  it  turns  ? 
Because  it  consists  principally  of  carbon. 

256.  Why,   when   the  point   of  the   wick  turns  out  and 
meets  the  air,  does  it  exhibit  a  bright  spark  ? 

Because  the  carbon  of  the  wick  comes  into  immediate  contact 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

257.  Why   does  holding  a  candle  "  upside  down'1  put  it 
out? 


70  THE   EEASON    WHY. 


"  Lord,  what  is  man  that  thou  takest  knowledge  of  him !  or  the  son  of  man, 
that  thou  makest  account  of  him."— PSALMS  CXLIV. 


Because  the  melted  grease  runs  down  too  rapidly,  and  at  too  low 
a  temperature  to  undergo  combustion.  It  therefore  reduces  the 
heat,  and  extinguishes  the  flame. 

258.  Why  is  it  more  difficult  to  How  out  the  flame  of  a 
candle  with  a  cotton  wick  than  one  with  a  rush  wick  ? 

Because  the  cotton  wick  imbibes  more  of  the  combustible 
materials,  and  holds  in  its  loose  texture  the  inflammable  gases  in  a 
state  ready  for  combustion. 

259.  Why  does  blowing  sharply  at  a  candle  flame  put  it 
out? 

Because  the  breath  drives  away  the  vapour  of  the  grease  which, 
becoming  gaseous,  supports  the  flame. 

And  because  too  rapid  a  flow  of  cold  air  reduces  the  temperature 
below  the  point  at  which  combustion  can  be  maintained. 

260.  Wliy  will  a  gentle  puff  of  breath,  if  given  speedily 
after  the  flame  is  extinguished,  re-kindle  it  ? 

Because  the  oxygen  of  the  air  combines  with  the  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen that  are  still  escaping  from  the  heated  wick,  and  re-lights  it. 

261.  Why  will  not  a  similar  puff  re-kindle  the  flame  of 
a  rushlight? 

Because  its  wick  retains  but  little  heat,  and  holds  a  comparatively 
small  amount  of  combustible  matter  in  a  volatile  state. 

262.  Why  is  a  flre,  when  it  is  very  low,  sometimes  put 
out  by  blowing  it  ? 

Because  the  too  rapid  flow  of  cold  air  reduces  the  temperature  of 
the  burning  mass. 

263.  Why    will    a   piece    of    paper     twisted    like    an 
extinguisher  put  out  a   candle? 

Because,  before  the  flame  of  the  candle  can  ignite  the  paper,  the 
oxygen  contained  within  it  is  consumed,  and  the  flame  iy 
suffocated. 


THE    KEASON    WHY.  71 


'  When  his  candle  shined  upon  my  head,  and  when  by  his  light  I  walked 
through  darkness." — JOB  xxix. 


264.  Why  do  tallow  candles  require  snuffing  ? 

Because  the  oxygen  of  the  air  cannot  reach  the  wick  through  the 
body  of  flame — therefore  the  unconsumed  carbon  accumulates  upon 
the  wick. 

265.  Why   do    composite   and  wax   candles  not  require 
snuffing  ? 

Because  their  wicks  are  made  by  a  series  of  plaits,  by  which  they 
are  bent  to  meet  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  consumed. 

266.  Why   does  setting  a  glass  upon  a  lamp  increase  its 
brilliancy,  though  it  shortens  the  -flame  ? 

Because  it  conducts  an  increase  of  air  to  the  flame,  and  the 
greater  supply  of  oxygen  causes  the  escaping  vapour  of  oil  to  be  all 
rapidly  consumed. 

267.  Why  does  a  candle  burn  dimly  ivhen  the  ivick  has 
become  loaded  with  carbon  ? 

Because  the  carbon  radiates  the  heat,  and  disperses  it,  and 
reduces  the  heat  of  the  flame  below  that  temperature  which  is 
essential  to  its  luminosity. 

268.  What   differences    characterise    the    combustion    of 
carbon  and  of  hydrogen  ? 

The  combustion  of  carbon  takes  place  without  the  production  of 
flame.  The  charcoal  (or  carbon  in  any  other  form)  being  heated  to 
redness,  enters  directly  into  combination  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
surrounding  air,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  being  invisible,  passes 
away  unobserved. 

But  in  the  combustion  of  hydrogen  the  heat  developed  is  so 
intense  as  to  render  the  gas  itself  luminous,  just  as  iron  may  be 
heated  to  a  red  or  white  heat. 

269.  What  has  become,  of  the  candle  when  it  has  been  burnt  ? 
It  has  been  resolved  partly  into  carbonic  acid  gas  which,  though 

unpcrceived,  has  diffused  itself  through  the  surrounding  air ;  and 
partly  into  water,  which  escaped  in  the  form  of  thin  vapour. 

270.  Has  any  part  of  the  candle  been  consumed  or  lost  ? 


72 


THE   EEAStN    WHY. 


"  I  know  that  whatsoever  God  doeth,  it  shall  be  for  ever :  nothing  can  be  put  to 

it,  nor  anything  taken  from  it ;  and  God  doeth  it  that  men 

should  fear  before  him."— ECCLES.  in. 

No ;  there  is  no  such  thing  as  "  loss  "  in  the  operations  of  nature. 
Every  particle  of  the  candle,  now  invisible,  exists  either  in  the 
form  of  gas,  vapour,  or  ivater,  with,  perhaps,  a  few  solid  particles 
that  may  be  called  ashes,  but  which  are  too  minute  to  excite 
attention. 

The  economy  of  nature  should  teach  us  a  very  impressive  lesson — nothing 
is  suffered  to  be  wasted,  not  even  the  slightest  atom.  As  soon  as  any  body  has 
fulfilled  its  purpose  in  one  estate  of  being,  it  is  passed  on  to  another.  The 
candle,  existing  no  longer  as  a  candle,  is  flying  upon  the  wings  of  the  air  as 
carbonic  acid  gas,  and  as  water.  These  probably  find  their  way  to  the  garden 
or  the  field,  where  the  carbonic  acid  gas  forms  the  food  of  the  plant,  and  the 
water  affords  it  a  refreshing  drink.  And  can  it  be  supposed  that  the  Almighty 
Being,  who  has  thus  economised  the  existence  of  the  material  creation,  should 
be  less  mindful  of  the  immaterial  soul  of  man  ?  There  is  an  eternity  before 
us,  the  certainty  of  which  is  evidenced  even  by  the  laws  of  the  material 
creation. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

271.  What  is  coal  ? 
Coal  is  a  "  vegetable  fossil. 

272.  What  is  meant  by  a  vegetable  fossil  ? 

It  is  a  substance  originally  vegetable,  which,  by  pressure  and 
other  agencies  within  the  earth,  has  been  brought  to  a  condition 
approaching  that  of  mineral  or  earthy  matter. 

273.  Why  do  we  know  that  coal  is  of  vegetable  origin  ? 
By  the  chemical  components  of  its  substance  j  and  also  by  the 

vegetable  forms  that  are  found  abundantly  in  coal  beds. 

Professor  Buckland,  in  his  Bridgeivater  Treatise,  speaking  of  the  impressions 
of  plants  found  in  the  coal  mines,  says:  "The  finest  example  I  have  ever 
witnessed  is  that  of  the  coal  mines  of  Bohemia.  The  most  elaborate  imitations 
of  living  foliage  upon  the  painted  ceilings  of  Italian  palaces  bear  no  comparison 
with  the  beauteous  profusion  of  extinct  vegetable  forms  with  which  the  galleries 
of  these  instructive  coal  mines  are  overhung.  ^  The  roof  is  covered  as  with  a 
canopy  of  gorgeous  tapestry,  enriched  with  fe'stoons  of  most  graceful  foliage, 
flung  in  wild  irregular  profusion  over  every  part  of  its  surface.  The  effect  is 
heightened  by  the  contrast  of  the  coal-black  colour  of  these  vegetables  with  tho 
light  ground-work  of  the  rock  to  which  they  arc  attached.  The  spectator  fuels 
himself  transported,  as  if  by  enchantment,  into  the  forests  of  another  world ;  h« 
beholds  trees,  of  forms  and  characters  now  unknown  upon  tl  e  smface  of  tho 


TJIE    REASON    WHY.  73 


"  Surely  every  man  walketh  in  a  vain  show ;  surely  they  are  disquieted  in  vain  : 
he  heapeth  up  riches,  and  kuoweth  not  who  shall  gather  them."— Ps.  xxxix. 


earth,  presented  to  his  senses  almost  in  the  beauty  and  vigour  of  their  primeval 
life ;  their  scaly  stems  and  bending  branches,  with  their  delicate  apparatus  of 
foliage,  are  all  spread  forth  before  him,  little  impaired  by  the  lapse  of  countless 
ages,  and  bearing  faithful  records  of  extinct  systems  of  vegetation  which  began 
and  terminated  in  times  of  which  these  relics  are  the  infallible  historians." 

27  i.    Wliat  are  the  chemical  components  of  coal? 

They  consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  The 
proportions  of  these  elements  vary  in  different  kinds  of  coal.  Carbon 
is  the  chief  component ;  and  the  proportions  may  be  stated  to  be, 
generally,  carbon,  90  per  cent. ;  hydrogen,  from  3  to  6  per  cent. ; 
the  other  elements  enter  into  the  compound  in  such  small 
proportions,  that,  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  it  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  coal  consists  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  but  chiefly  of  carbon. 

275.   What  is  charcoal  ? 

Charcoal  consists  almost  entirely  of  carbon.  It  is  made  from 
wood  by  the  application  of  heat,  without  the  admission  of  air.  The 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  wood  are  expelled,  and  that  which 
remains  is  charcoal,  or  carbon  in  one  of  its  purest  states. 

27G.   What  is  animal  charcoal  ? 

Animal  charcoal,  like  vegetable  charcoal,  consists  of  carbon  in  a 
state  approaching  purity.  It  is  made  from  the  bones  of  animah, 
heated  in  iron  cylinders.  It  is  commonly  called  ivory  blade. 

277.  What  is  the  purest  form  of  carbon  known? 

The  purest  form  of  carbon  is  the  diamond,  which  may  be  said  to 
be  absolutely  pure. 

Hence  we  derive  another  of  the  beautiful  lessons  of  science— a  lesson  which 
teaches  us  to  despise  nothing  that  God  has  given.  The  soot  which  blackens  the 
face  of  a  chimney-sweep,  and  the  diamond  that  glistens  in  the  crown  of  the 
monarch,  consist  of  the  same  element  in  merely  a  different  atomic  condition. 
"What  a  lesson  of  humility  this  teaches  to  Pride !  The  haughty  beauty  as  she 
walks  the  ball-room,  inwardly  proud  of  the  radiance  of  her  gems  as  they  rise 
and  fall  upon  her  breast,  little  thinks  or  knows  that  every  breath  that  is  expired 
around  her  wafts  away  the  like  element  of  which  her  treasures  are  composed. 
That  even  in  our  own  flesh  and  bones  the  same  abounding  substance  lies  hid; 
and  that  the  buried  tree  of  the  primitive  world,  and  the  little  flower  of 
to-day,  are  both  the  instruments  of  giving  this  singular  element  to  man ! 

278.  What  is  coke  ? 

Coke  is  coal,  divested  of  its  hydrogen  and  other  volatile  parts,  by 
4 


/4  THE    REASON    \VIIY. 


'Oh  that  men  would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness,  and  for  his  wonderftil 
works  to  the  children  of  men."— PSALM  cvn. 


n  similar  process  to  that  by  which  charcoal  is  produced.  It  forms 
the  residue  after  hydrogen  gas  has  been  made  from  coals.  It  consists 
almost  entirely  of  carbon. 

279.  Why  do  burning  coals  produce  yellow  flame? 
Because  the  hydrogen  which  they  contain  is  combined  with  some 

proportion  of  carbon,  which  imparts  a  bright  yellow  colour  to  the 
flames. 

280.  Why  do  some  of  the  flames  of  a  fire  appear  muck 
whiter  than  others  ? 

Because  the  quality  of  coals,  and  the  conditions  under  which 
they  are  burnt,  are  liable  to  variation.  Some  coals  yield  a  heavy 
hydrogen,  called  bi-carburetted  hydrogen,  which  burns  with  a 
much  brighter  flame  than  carburetted  hydrogen. 

281.  Why  does  bi-carburetted  hydrogen,  burn  with  a  whiter 
flame  than  the  common  coal  gas  ? 

Because  it  is  combined  with  a  larger  proportion  of  carbon,  to 
which  it  owes  its  increased  luminosity. 

282.  Why  do  some  of 'the  flames  of  a  fire  appear  blue? 

Because  the  hydrogen  which  is  escaping  where  those  flames  occiti* 
is  pure  hydrogen,  destitute  of  carbon. 

283.  Why  does  the  fire  sometimes  appear  red,  and  without 
flame  ? 

Because  the  volatile  gases  have  been  driven  off  and  consumed, 
and  combustion  is  continued  by  the  carbon  of  the  coals  and  the 
oxygen  of  the  air. 

284.  What  effect  has  the  burning  of  afire  upon  the  compo- 
sition of  the  air  ? 

It  is  found  that  in  burning  lOlb.  of  coal  the  oxygen  contained  in 
]  ,551  cubic  feet  of  air  is  altogether  absorbed.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  atmosphere  of  a  room,  in  which  a  coal  fire  is 
burning,  fresh  and  pure,  to  supply  155  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  for 
every  pound  of  coal  that  is  consumed. 


THE   HEASON   WHY.  75 

"  O  Lord  how  manifold  are  thy  works,  in  wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all :  tha 
earth  is  full  of  thy  riches." — PSALM  civ.  % 

285.  Why  does  wood  which  is  "green"  hiss  and  steam 
when  it  is  burnt  ? 

Because  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  water,  which  must  be 
evaporated  before  combustion  can  proceed. 

286.  What  is  the  effect  of  this  evaporation  T 

A  great  deal  of  heat  is  unprofitably  expended  in  driving  off  the 
water  of  the  fuel. 

287.  Why  does  poking  a  fire    cause    it  to  ~burn  more 
brightly? 

Because  it  opens  avenues  through  which  the  air  may  enter  to 
supply  oxygen. 

288.  Why  do  "  blowers"  improve  the  draft  of  air  through, 
afire  ? 

Because,  by  obstructing  the  passage  of  the  current  of  air  over 
the  fire,  they  cause  additional  air  to  pass  through  it,  and  therefore 
a  greater  amount  of  oxygen  is  carried  to  the  coals. 

289.  What  is  smoke  ? 

Unconsumed  particles  of  coal,  rendered  volatile  by  heat,  and 
driven  off. 

290.  What  is  soot? 

Carbon  in  minute  particles,  driven  off  with  other  volatile  matters 
and  deposited  on  the  walls  of  chimnies. 

291.  Why  do  fresh  coals  increase  the  quantity  of  smoke  ? 
Because  they  contain  volatile  matters  which  are  easily  driven  off; 

and  because,  also,  they  reduce  momentarily  the  heat,  so  that  those 
matters  that  first  escape  cannot  be  consumed. 

292.  Why  do   charcoal  and  coke  fires  burn  clearly  and 
without  flame  ? 

Because  the  hydrogen  has  oeen  previously  driven  off  from  those 
substances. 

293.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  light  charcoal  and  coke  fires? 


76  THE  SEASON   WHY. 

"He  hath  made  his  wonderful  works  to  be  remembered:  the  Lord  is  precious 
and  full  of  compassion." — PSALM  CXL. 


Because  they  contain  no  "hydrogen  to  produce  flame,  and  assist 
combustion. 

A  new  plan  of  kindling  fires  has  lately  been  recommended.  Coals  are  to  be 
laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  fire-place  to  a  considerable  depth,  then  the  paper  and 
wood  are  to  be  laid  on,  and  then  a  little  coals  and  cinders  over  them.  This 
plan  of  "laying  in"  the  fire  is  precisely  the  reverse  of  that  which  has  been 
pursued  for  many  years.  The  theory  is,  that  when  the  coals  in  the  bottom  are 
ignited,  a  more  even  combustion  is  kept  up,  whilst  the  smoke  and  gas  which 
would  otherwise  escape,  and  become  as  so  much  waste  fuel,  is  burnt  up,  and 
produces  heat.  We  have  heard  the  plan  strongly  recommended  by  persons  who 
have  tried  it,  and  who  testify  to  the  great  economy  of  fuel  to  which  it 
conduces. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

294.  Why  does  paper  ignite  more  readily  than  wood? 
Because  its  texture  is  less  dense  than  that  of  wood  j  its  particles 

are  therefore  more  readily  heated  and  decomposed. 

295.  But  if  articles  of  loose  texture  are  lad  conductors  of 
heat,  why  do  they  so  easily  ignite  ? 

The  fact  that  they  are  lad  conductors  assists  their  ignition. 
The  heat  which  would  pass  from  particle  to  particle  of  the  dense 
substance  of  iron,  and  be  conducted  away,  accumulates  in  the 
interspaces  of  paper,  and  ignites  it. 

296.  Why  does  wood  ignite  less  readily  than  paper  ? 

Because  its  substance  is  denser  than  that  of  paper ;  it  therefore 
requires  a  higher  degree  of  heat  to  inflame  its  substance. 

297.  Why  does  wood,   when  ignited,   burn   longer  than 
paper  ? 

Because,  being  a  denser  substance,  it  submits  a  larger  number 
of  particles,  within  a  given  space,  to  the  action  of  the  heat,  an6 
the  formation  of  gases. 

298.  Why  do  we,  in  lighting  afire  ,first  lay  in  vaper,  then 
wood,  and  lastly  coals  ? 


THE    SEASON    WIIY.  77 


1  It  is  a  good  thing  to  give  thanks  unto  the  Lord,  and  to  sing  praises  unto  thy 
name,  O  Most  High."— PSALM  xcn. 


Because  the  paper  is  more  easily  ignited  than  wood,  and  \vood 
than  coals ;  therefore  the  paper  assists  the  ignition  of  the  wood, 
and  the  wcod  assists  the  ignition  of  the  coals. 

299.  Why  will  not  wood  ignite  by  the  flame  of  a  match  ? 

It  will  do  so,  unless  there  is  a  great  disproportion  between  the 
size  of  the  wood  and  the  flame  of  a  match.  A  thin  piece  of  wood 
will  ignite,  but  a  square  block  will  not,  because  the  heat  of  the 
flame  is  insufficient  to  raise  tne  temperature  of  a  large  surface  to 
the  point  that  will  drive  out  its  gases 

300.  Why  do  we  place  the  paper  under  the  wood,  and  the 
wood  under  the  coals  ? 

Because  heat  and  flame,  when  surrounded  by  air,  have  a  strong 
tendency  to  spread  themselves  upwards. 

301.  Would  it  le  possible  to  light  the  coals  ly  putting  the 
paper  and  the  wood  upon  the  top  ? 

It  would  be  possible ;  but  the  loss  of  heat  would  be  so  great, 
that  a  much  larger  quantity  of  paper  and  wood  would  be  required. 

302.  Why  does  a  poker  laid  across  the  top  of  a  dull  fire 
revive  it  ? 

Because  the  poker  radiates  the  heat  it  receives  from  the  fire 
downward  upon  the  fuel. 

Because,  also,  it  divides  the  ascending  air,  and  thereby  creates 
current*. 

The  amount  of  good  which  the  poker  does  to  the  fire  is  very  slight  indeed. 
Generally,  the  housewife  stirs  the  fire  first,  and  blows  or  brushes  away  the 
ashes  that  prevent  the  influx  of  air.  She  then  places  the  poker  upon  the  top, 
and  the  popular  mind  supposes  that  the  poker  "  draws"  the  fire.  The  custom 
of  placing  a  poker  over  the  fire  is  of  very  remote  antiquity.  It  was  once 
believed  that  forming  a  cross,  by  placing  the  poker  over  the  bars,  protected  the 
fire  from  the  hostility  of  malignant  witches ! 

303.  Why  should  fire-places  le  fixed  as  low  as  possible  in 
rooms  ? 

Because  heat  ascends,  and  when  the  fire-places  are  high  the  lower 
parts  of  the  room  are  inadequately  warmed. 


78  THE    EEASON   WHY. 


"  Unto  thee,  O  God,  do  we  give  thanks :  for  that  thy  name  is  near  thy  wondrous 
works  declare."— PSAXM 


Also,  as  currents  of  air  fly  towards  the  fire,  elevated  fire-places 
cause  drafts  about  the  persons  of  the  inmates  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  they  would  if  they  were  lower  down. 

304.  Why,  if  a  piece  of  paper  be  laid  with  its  flat  surface 
upon  the  fire,  will  it  "  char"  but  not  ignite? 

Because,  as  in  the  case  of  the  proper  candle-extinguisher,  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  accumulating  beneath  it  prevents  its  igniting. 

305.  Why,  if  you  direct  a  current  of  air  towards  the  paper, 
will  it  burst  into  a  Haze  ? 

Because  the  carbonic  acid  gas  is  displaced  by  a  current  of  air 
containing  oxygen. 

306.  Why  does  water  extinguish  fire  ? 

Became  it  saturates  the  fuel,  and  prevents  the  gases  thereof 
from  combining  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

307.  As  water  contains  oxygen,  tvhy  does  not  the  oxygen  of 
the  water  support  the  fire  ? 

Because  the  affinity  between  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the 
water  is  so  strong  that  fire  cannot  separate  them. 

"Water  may  be  decomposed  by  heat,  as  will  be  hereafter  explained.  But  the 
heat  of  an  ordinary  fire  is  insufficient.  There  is,  however,  some  reason  for 
believing  that,  in  cases  of  very  large  fires,  such  as  the  accidental  burning  of 
houses,  &c.,  when  the  supply  of  water  thrown  upon  the  fire  is  very  deficient, 
the  water  does  become  decomposed,  and  add  to  the  fury  of  the  flames. 

308.  Why  does  the  blacksmith  sprinkle  water  upon   the 
coals  of  his  forge? 

The  blacksmith  uses  small  coals  because  the  small  pieces  thereof 
are  more  easily  ignited  than  large  lumps  would  be,  and  they  convey 
heat  better  by  completely  surrounding  the  articles  put  into  the  fire. 
He  sprinkles  water  on  the  coal  dust  to  hold  its  particles  toaether 
by  cohesion,  until  the  heat  forms  it  into  a  cake.  A  strong  blast  of 
hot  hair  drives  the  vapour  of  the  water  away,  and  leaves  a  porous 
mass  to  the  action  of  the  fire. 

309.  Why,  when  the  blacksmith  thrusts  a  heated  iron  into 
a  tankard  of  water,  do  we  recognise  a  peculiar  smell  ? 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  79 


"  Oh  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God !  how 
unsearchable  are  his  judgments,  and  his. ways  past  finding  out." — BOM.  xi. 


Because  the  intense  heat  disengages  a  small  volume  of  the  gases 
of  which  water  is  formed. 

310.  Which  gas  do  we  (in  this  instance)  recognise  by  the 
smell  ? 

The  hydrogen  gas.     Oxygen  gas  possesses  no  odour. 

311.  What  is  Spontaneous  Combustion  ? 

Spontaneous  combustion  is  that  which  occurs  in  various  bodies 
when  they  become  highly  heated  by  chemical  changes. 

312.  Why  is  heat  developed  during  chemical  changes  ? 
Because,  as  all  bodies  contain  latent  caloric,  the  disturbance  of 

the  atoms  of  which  those  bodies  are  composed,  during  the  new 
combinations  that  constitute  chemical  changes,  frequently  sets  the 
caloric  free,  and  an  accumulation  of  caloric  produces  spontaneous 
combustion. 

313.  Does  a  match  ignite  spontaneously  when  drawn  over 
a  rough  surface  ? 

No.  Because  in  this  case  the  combustion  arises  from  heat 
applied  by  friction. 

314.  Does  phosphorous  ignite    spontaneously    when  held 
in  a  iv arm  hand  ? 

Phosphorous  will  ignite  when  held  in  a  warm  hand,  but  it  does 
not  then  produce  spontaneous  combustion,  because  it  ignites  through 
the  agency  of  applied  heat. 

315.  But  if  a  piece  of  dry  phosphorous  be  sprinkled  with 
powdered  charcoal  it  will  ignite,  without  the  application  of 
heat.     Why  is  this  ? 

Because  the  carbon  (charcoal)  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air,  and 
conveys  it  to  the  phosphorous.  Here  are  chemical  changes  which 
develope  heat,  and  produce  spontaneous  combustion. 

316.  Why  do  hay-stacks  sometimes  take  fire  ? 

Because  the  hay,  having  become  damp,  decays,  and  passes  on  to 
a  state  of  fermentation,  ;.n  which  chemical  changes  occur,  during 


80  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


"  Who  hath  woe  ?  who  hath  sorrow  ?  who  hath  contentions  ?  who  hath  babbling  ? 

who  hath  words  without  cause?  who  hath  redness  of  the  eyes  ?   *  *  * 

They  that  tarry  long  at  the  wine."— Pnov.  xxm. 

which  heat  is  evolved.     Hay,  taking  fire  under  these  circumstances, 
would  exhibit  spontaneous  combustion. 

317.  What  substances  are  liable  to  produce  spontaneous 
combustion  ? 

All  substances  which  contain  sugar,  starch,  and  other  compo- 
nents liable  to  fermentation.  All  bodies  that  evolve,  under  low 
degrees  of  temperature,  inflammable  gases.  And  all  organic  bodies 
undergoing  decay. 

Grain,  cotton,  hemp,  flax,  coals,  oily  and  greasy  substances. 

318.  What  is  the  Ignis  Fatuus  (sometimes  called  "  Will- 
o'-the-Wisp"  "  Corpse  Candles"  and  "  Jack-o'- Lantern")  ? 

It  is  a  flame  produced  by  spontaneous  combustion,  caused  by  the 
decay  of  animal  or  vegetable  bodies,  which  evolve  phosphoretted 
hydrogen  gas,  under  circumstances  attended  by  a  low  degree  of 
heat,  sufficient  to  ignite  the  gases.  It  is  mostly  seen  over  marshy 
places,  and  burial-grounds. 

Many  a  "  Ghost  Story"  has  owed  its  origin  to  these  singular  but  harmles  ? 
appearances.  People,  ignorant  of  the  cause,  have  been  terrified  at  the  effect. 
To  the  fancy  of  an  affrighted  mortal,  the  simple  flame  of  the  Ignis  Fatuus 
has  assumed  the  form  of  a  departed  friend,  and  even  found  a  supernatural 
voice.  If,  excited  by  a  momentary  daring,  the  beholder  moved  towards  the 
light  upon  which  he  gazed,  it  fled  from  him.  If  he  turned  from  it  and  walked 
away,  it  followed  him,  step  by  step.  The  darkness  of  a  lonely  road,  or  the  sacred 
solitude  of  a  burial-place,  have  been  sufficient  accessories  to  authenticate  the 
appearance  of  a  spirit.  And  yet  how  simple  the  phenomenon  P  Matters  so 
volatile  as  those  which  produce  the  Ignis  Fatuus  would  naturally  be  driven 
back  by  the  motion  in  the  air  caused  by  an  advancing  body ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  body  moving  from  them  would  create  a  current  in  which  the  Ignis 
Fatuus  would  follow.  Poisonous  gases,  escaping  from  decaying  bodies,  pass 
into  the  air  and  take  fire.  They  are  thereby  converted  into  harmless  com- 
pounds. Thus  we  see  that  the  "  ghost"  which  terrifies  the  mind  of  the  ignorant, 
becomes  a  "guardian  angel"  to  the  educated. 

319.  Has  spontaneous  combustion  ever  occurred  in  living 
bodies  ? 

It  has  occurred  in  numerous  instances  to  persons  habituated  to 
the  excessive  use  of  spirits. 

320.  Why  should  spontaneous  combustion  occur  in  the  case 
of  the  drunkard  ? 


THE   SEASON    WHY.  81 


1  Drought  and  heat  consume  the  snow  waters ;  so  doth  the  grave  those  which 
have  sinned."— JOB  xxiy. 


Because  spirituous  drinks  contain  a  large  proportion  of  alcohol, 
one  of  the  constituents  of  which  is  hydrogen.  The  vital  energies  of 
the  drunkard,  being  destroyed  by  excess,  chemical  agencies  obtain 
an  ascendancy,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  hydrogen  of  the  alcohol 
combines  with  the  phosphorous  of  the  body  to  form  phosphoretted 
hydrogen,  which  ignites  spontaneously,  and  literally  consumes  the 
living  temple. 

Cases  of  spontaneous  combustion  are  of  rare  occurrence.  But  they  are 
sufficiently  well  authenticated  by  high  medical  authority,  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  to  present  an  awful  warning  to  the  inveterate  drunkard.  The  cases  of 
which  we  have  read  the  particulars  present  details  of  the  most  appalling 
description.  How  signally  the  Almighty  displeasure  at  intemperance  is 
expressed,  when  the  very  drink  which  imparts  the  mad  pleasure  of  intoxication 
is  made  the  direct  instrument  by  which  the  drunkard  is  destroyed  ! 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

321.  Why  does  friction  produce  heat? 

Because  all  bodies  contain  latent  heat,  that  is,  heat  that  lies  hid 
in  their  substance,  and  the  rubbings  of  two  bodies  against  each 
other  draws  the  latent  heat  to  the  excited  surfaces. 

322.  Why  does  the  rubbing  of  two  surfaces  together  attract 
latent  heat  to  those  surfaces  ? 

Because  it  is  a  law  of  nature  that  heat  shall  always  attend 
motion  ;  and  it  is  generally  found  that  the  intensity  of  heat  bears  a 
specific  relation  to  the  velocity  of  motion. 

323.  What  are  the  sources  of  heat? 

The  rays  of  the  sun,  the  currents  of  electricity,  the  action  ol 
chemicals,  and  the  motion  of  substances.  *  ' 

324.  Why  does  water  freeze? 

Because  its  latent  heat  is  partly  draun  off"  by  the  surrounding 
ail'. 

325.  Why  does  ice  melt  ? 

Because  the  heat,  once  latent  in  the  water,  but  drawn  off  by  tha 
air,  has  returned  to  it,  and  restored  the  water  to  its  fonnev 
toudition. 

4* 


62  TITE    REASON   WHY. 


**  So  teach  us  to  number  our  days,  that  we  may  apply  our  hearts  unto  wisdom.' 
PSALM  xc. 


326.  Wliy  does  water  become  steam  ? 

Because  a  larger  amount  of  heat  has  entered  into  it  than  can 
remain  latent  in  water.  The  water  therefore  expands  and  rises  in 
the  form  of  vapour,  or  water  attenuated  by  heat. 

327.  Sow  many  degrees  of  Tieat  are  latent,  or  hidden,  in 
the  different  states  of  water  ? 

In  thawing  ice,  140  deg.  of  caloric  become  latent ;  and  in 
converting  the  water  into  steam,  1,000  deg.  more  of  caloric  are 
be  taken  up.  Therefore,  ice  requires  to  take  up  1,140  deg.  of  latent 
caloric  before  it  becomes  steam. 

328.  What  is  the  most  modern  theory  of  heat  ? 

It  is  this — that  caloric,  which  produces  heat,  is  an  extremely 
subtile  fluid,  of  so  refined  a  nature  that  it  possesses  no  weight,  yet 
is  capable  of  diffusing  itself  among  the  particles  of  the  most  solid 
bodies. 

It  is  also  believed  that — all  bodies  are  subject  to  the  action  of 
two  opposing  forces  :  one,  the  mutual  attraction  of  their  particles  ; 
the  other,  the  repulsive  force  of  caloric — and  that  bodies  exist  in 
the  aeriform,  fluid,  or  solid  state,  according  to  the  predominance 
of  either  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  opposing  forces. 

329.  How  do  we  measure  the  quantity  of  caloric  in  any 
substance  ? 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  amount  of  caloric  which  any 
body  contains.  Our  sensations  would  obviously  be  deceptive,  since, 
if  we  dipped  the  right  hand  in  snow,  and  held  the  left  hand  before 
the  fire,  and  then  immersed  both  hands  in  cold  water,  the  water 
would  feel  warm  to  the  right  hand  and  cold  to  the  left  hand. 

But,  as  caloric  uniformly  expands  substances  that  are  under  its 
influence,  one  of  the  bodies  most  sensitive  to  calorific  effects  has 
been  selected  to  be  the  indicator  of  the  amount  of  caloric.  This 
substance  is  quicksilver ;  and  the  scale  of  measurement,  and  the 
apparatus  for  exhibiting  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  quicksilver,  consti- 
tute the  thermometer. 

330.  If  it  is  impossible  to  measure  the  amount  of  caloric  in 
any  substance,  how  can  it  be  said  that  ice  absorbs  140  deg.  iv 
becoming  water  ? 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  g3 


1  Great  is  the  Lord,  and  greatly  to  be  praised  in  the  city  of  our  God,  in  the 
mountain  of  his  holiness."— PSALJI  XI/VTII. 


Those  figures  simply  record  the  amount  of  caloric  indicated  by 
the  thermometer.  The  instrument  will  show  with  sufficient  accu- 
racy the  relative  amount  of  caloric  in  various  bodies,  or  in  the  same 
bodies  under  different  circumstances,  but  it  can  never  determine 
imprecise  amount  of  caloric  in  any  one  body. 

331.  Why,  if  allot  and  a  cold  body  ivere  placed  near  to 
each  other,  would  the  cold  one  become  warmer,  and  the  hot 
one  cooler  ? 

Because  free  caloric  (that  is,  caloric  that  is  not  latent,)  always 
exhibits  a  tendency  to  establish  an  equilibrium.  If  twenty  bodies, 
of  different  temperatures,  were  placed  in  the  same  atmosphere,  they 
would  all  soon  arrive  at  the  same  temperature.  The  caloric  would 
leave  the  bodies  of  those  of  the  highest,  and  find  its  way  to  those  of 
the  lowest  temperature. 

332.  How  does  caloric  travel  ? 

It  travels  in  parallel  rays  in  all  directions  with  a  velocity 
approximating  to  that  of  light ;  and  it  passes  through  various 
bodies  with  a  rapidity  proportionate  to  their  power  of  conduction. 

333.  Why  does  melted  metal  run  HJce  a  stream  of  fluid? 
Because  caloric  has  passed  into  its  substance,  and,  repelling  its 

particles,    has    separated  them  to    that  degree    which  produces 
fluidity. 

334.  How  do  we  know  that  it  is  caloric  passing  into  the 
substance  of  the  metal  which  produces  this  effect? 

Because,  as  soon  as  a  bar  of  metal  begins  to  be  heated,  it 
expands  and  lengthens.  It  continues  to  do  so,  until  the  heat  arrives 
at  that  point  which  causes  the  metal  to  melt. 

335.  Why  does  the  iron  of  an  ironing-box  sometimes  become 
too  large  for  the  box  to  receive  it  ? 

Because  caloric  has  passed  into  the  substance  of  the  iron,  and 
repelled  its  particles,  by  which  it  has  become  expanded. 

336.  Why  does  the  iron  enter  the  box  when  it  has  become 
partially  cooled? 


64  THE   REASON   WHY. 


"  Cast  thy  burden  upon  the  Lord,  and  he  shall  sustain  thee;  he  shall  never 
suffer  the  righteous  to  be  moved."— PSALM  LT. 


Because  a  portion  of  the  caloriu  has  left  the  iron,  the  particles  of 
which  have  drawn  closer  together,  and  contracted  the  mass. 

This  effect  is  frequently  observed  by  females  in  domestic  life,  who,  when 
they  are  ironing,  or  using  the  Italian  irons,  find  that  the  heated  metal  has  been 
too  much  expanded  to  enter  the  box  or  tube.  They  find  it  necessary  to  wait 
until  the  cooling  of  the  iron  has  had  the  effect  of  reducing  its  dimensions.  The 
expansion  of  bodies  by  heat  is  one  of  the  grandest  and  most  important  laws  of 
nature.  We  are  indebted  to  it  for  some  of  the  most  beautiful,  as  well  as  the 
most  awful,  phenomena.  And  science  has  gained  some  of  its  mightiest  conquests 
through  its  aid.  Yet  frequently,  though  quite  unthought  of,  in  the  hands  of 
the  humble  laundress,  will  be  found  a  most  striking  illustration  of  this  wonderful 
force  of  caloric. 

337.  Are  there  any  instances  in  which,  the  abstraction  of 
latent  heat  will  reduce  the  bulk  of  bodies  ? 

Yes,  there  are  several.  But  the  most  familiar  one  is  that  which 
is  exhibited  by  mixing  a  pint  of  the  oil  of  vitriol  with  a  pint  of 
water.  A  considerable  amount  of  heat  will  be  evolved ;  and  it 
will  be  found  that  the  two  pints  of  fluid  will  not  afterwards 
fill  a  quart  measure. 

338.  Is  there  any  latent  heat  in  air? 

Yes  :  a  considerable  amount.  In  a  pint  measure  of  air,  though 
in  no  way  evident  to  our  perceptions,  there  lurks  sufficient  caloric 
to  raise  a  piece  of  metal  several  inches  square  to  glowing  redness. 

339.  How  do  we  know  that  caloric  exists  in  the  air  ? 

It  has  been  positively  demonstrated  by  the  invention  of  a  small 
condensing  syringe,  by  which,  through  the  rapid  compression  of  a 
small  volume  of  air,  a  spark  is  emitted  which  ignites  a  piece  of 
prepared  tinder. 

340.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  spark  when  a  horse's  shoe 
strikes  against  a  stone  ? 

The  latent  heat  of  the  iron  or  the  stone  is  set  free  by  the  violent 
percussion.  The  same  effect  takes  place  when  flint  strikes  against 
steel,  as  in  the  old  method  of  obtaining  a  light  with  the  aid  of  the 
tinder-box. 

What  an  eloquent  lecture  might  be  delivered  upon  the  old-fashioned  tinder- 
box,  illustrated  by  the  one  experiment  of  "  striking  a  light."  In  that  box  lie, 
cold  and  motionless,  the  Flint  and  Steel,  rude  in  form  and  crude  in  substance. 
And  yet,  within  the  breast  of  each,  there  lies  a  spark  of  that  grand  element 


THE    REASON   WHY. 


'The  waters  are  laid  as  with  a  stone,  and  the  face  of  the  deep  is  frozen."— 
JOB  xxxviii. 


which  influences  every  atom  of  the  universe ;  a  spark  which  could  invoke  the 
fierce  agents  of  destruction  to  wrap  their  blasting  flames  around  a  stately 
forest,  or  a  crowded  city,  and  sweep  it  from  the  face  of  the  world ;  or  which 
might  kindle  the  genial  blaze  upon  the  homely  hearth,  and  shed  a  radiant  glow 
upon  a  group  of  smiling  faces ;  a  spark  such  as  that  which  rises  with  the 
curling  smoke  from  the  village  blackmith's  forge— or  that  which  leaps  with 
terrific  wrath  from  the  troubled  breast  of  a  Vesuvius.  And  then  the  tinder— 
the  cotton — the  carbon :  What  a  tale  might  be  told  of  the  cotton- field  where  it 
grew,  of  the  black  slave  who  plucked  it,  of  the  white  toiler  who  spun  it  into  a 
garment,  and  of  the  village  beauty  who  wore  it— until,  faded  and  despised,  it 
was  cast  amongst  a  heap  of  old  rags,  and  finally  found  its  way  to  the  tinder- 
box.  Then  the  Tinder  might  tell  of  its  hopes ;  how,  though  now  a  blackened 
mass,  soiling  everything  that  touched  it,  it  would  soon  be  wedded  to  one  of  the 
great  ministers  of  nature,  and  fly  away  on  transparent  wings,  until,  resting 
upon  some  Alpine  tree,  it  would  make  its  home  among  the  green  leaves,  and  for 
a  while  live  in  freshness  a*)d  beauty,  louking  down  upon  the  peaceful  vale. 
Tlien  the  Steel  might  tell  its  story,  how  for  centuries  it  lay  in  the  deep  caverns 
of  the  earth,  until  man,  with  his  unquiet  spirit,  dug  down  to  the  dark  depths 
and  dragged  it  forth,  saying,  "  No  longer  be  at  peace."  Then  would  come  tales 
of  the  fiery  furnace,  what  Fire  had  done  for  Steel,  and  what  Steel  had  done  for 
Fire.  And  then  the  Flint  might  tell  of  the  time  when  the  weather-bound 
mariners,  lighting  their  fires  upon  the  Syrian  shore,  melted  silicious  stones  into 
gems  of  glass,  and  thus  led  the  way  to  the  discovery  of  the  transparent  pane 
that  gives  a  crystal  inlet  to  the  light  of  our  homes ;  of  the  mirror  in  whose  face 
the  lady  contemplates  her  charms ;  of  the  microscope  and  the  telescope  by 
which  the  invisible  are  brought  to  sight,  and  the  distant  drawn  near ;  of  the 
prism  by  which  Newton  analysed  the  rays  of  light ;  and  of  the  photographic 
camera  iu  which  the  sun  prints  with  his  own  rays  the  pictures  of  his  own 
adorning.  And  then  both  Flint  and  Steel  might  relate  their  adventures  in  the 
battle-field,  whither  they  had  gone  together ;  and  of  fights  they  had  seen  in 
which  man  struck  down  his  fello\v-man,  and,  like  a  fiend  had  revelled  in  his 
brother's  blood.  Thus,  even  from  the  cold  hearts  of  flint  and  steel,  man  might 
learn  a  lesson  which  should  make  him  blush  at  the  "  glory  of  war ;"  and  the 
proud,  who  despise  the  teachings  of  small  things,  might  learn  to  appreciate  the 
truths  that  are  linked  to  the  story  of  a  "  tinder-box." 


LESSON   XVIL 

341.  Since  all  bodies  expand  by  Jieat  and  contract  by  cold, 
why  does  water,  when  it  reaches  the  freezing  point,  expand? 

Because,  in  freezing,  water  undergoes  crystallization,  in  which  its 
particles  assume  a  new  arrangement  occupying  greater  space. 

342.  Why  does  water  never  freeze  to  a  great  depth  ? 
Because  the  covering  of  ice  which  is  formed  upon  the  surface  of 


86  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


" For  he  saith  to  the  snow,  Be  thou  on  the  earth;  likewise  to  the  small  rain, 
and  to  the  great  rain  of  his  strength." — JOB  xxxvii. 

the  water  prevents  the  cold  air  from  continuing  to  draw  off  the 
caloric  of  the  water. 

343.  Why  has  this  exceptional  law  of  the   expansion   of 
water,  ivhen  freezing,  been  ordained  ? 

Because,  but  for  this,  deep  waters  might  be  frozen  through  then 
whole  depth.  This  would  destroy  the  myriads  of  fish  and  other 
living  things  that  inhabit  the  water.  Parts  of  the  earth,  now  clad 
in  verdure,  would  be  lost  in  eternal  winter ;  and  even  in  the  most 
temperate  zones  it  would  take  months  to  effect  a  thaw ;  and  thawing 
would  be  attended  with  such  floods  and  subterranean  commotion  s 
as  are  terrible  to  contemplate. 

344.  Why  are  bed-room  windows  sometimes  covered  with 
crystalline  forms  on  winter  mornings  T 

Because  the  vapour  of  the  breaths  of  the  inmates  has  condensed 
upon  the  window-panes,  and  formed  water.  The  water  has  frozen 
with  the  cold,  and  exhibits  the  beautiful  crystalline  forms  into  which 
its  particles  are  arranged. 

[Here  we  have  another  domestic  illustration  of  the  great  laws  of  nature.  It 
is  the  same  law  which  locks  the  artic  regions  in  ice  and  decorates  our  window- 
panes.  This  beautifut^ahenomenon  is  usually  witnessed  by  us  on  frosty 
mornings  when  we  rise  from  our  beds.  It  has  a  story  which  the  observer  of 
nature  may  read  in  its  sparkling  eyes.  It  tells  that,  although  without  the  air  is 
biting  cold,  God  has  wrapped  a  mantle  around  the  face  of  nature  to  keep  it 
from  injury;  and  that  the  earth  "and  the  waters,  though  looking  chilled  and 
dead,  have  still  the  warmth  of  life  preserved  in  their  bosoms.] 

345.  What  is  dew  ? 

Dew  is  watery  vapour  diffused  in  the  air,  condensed  by  coming 
in  contact  with  bodies  colder  than  the  atmosphere. 

346.  Why  does  the  air  become  charged  with  watery  vapour  ? 
Because,  during  the  day,  under  the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays, 

vapours  are  exhaled  from  all  the  moist  and  watery  surfaces  of  the 
earth.  These  vapours  are  held  in  suspension  in  the  atmosphere 
until,  by  a  change  in  the  temperature  of  the  earth,  and  of  bodies  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  they  are  condensed,  and  deposited  in 
translucid  drops. 

347.  What  causes  the  decline  of  temperature  that  favours 
the  deposition  of  dew  ? 


THE   SEASON    WHY. 


87 


"  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd,  I  shall  not  want.  He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green 
pastures."— PSALM  xxm. 


The  earth,  which  during-  the  day  received  heat  from  the  solar 
rays,  radiates  the  heat  back  into  the  air,  and  therefore  becomes 
itself  colder.  All  the  various  objects  upon  the  face  of  the  earth 
also  radiate  heat  in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree.  And  dew  will  be 
found  to  be  deposited  upon  the  surfaces  of  such  bodies  in  proportion 
to  the  fall  of  their  temperature  through  radiation. 

348.  Why  is  there  little  or  no  dew  when  the  nights  are 
cloudy  ? 

Because  clouds  act  as  secondary  radiators ;  and  when  the  earth 
radiates  its  heat  towards  the  clouds,  the  clouds  again  radiate  it 
back  to  the  earth. 


Fig.  3.— ILLUSTRATING  THE  POBMATION  OF  DEW. 

If  plates  of  glass  be  laid  over  grass-beds,  as  in  the  engraving  Pig.  3,  no  dew 
will  be  deposited  on  the  grass  underneath  the  glass  plates,  although  all  around 
the  grass  will  be  completely  wetted.  The  explanation  is  that  the  glasses,  being 
radiators  of  heat,  act  in  the  same  manner  as  the  clouds,  returning  the  heat  to 
the  bodies  underneath  them,  and  preventing  the  formation  of  dew  thereon. 

349.  WTiy  does  dew  form  most  abundantly  an  cloudless 
nights  ? 

Because  the  heat  which  is  radiated  by  the  earth  does  not  return 
to  it.  The  temperature  of  the  earth,  and  the  air  immediately  upon 
its  surface,  is  therefore  lowered,  and  dew  is  formed. 

It  has  been  observed  that  sheep  that  have  lain  on  the  grass  during  the 
formation  of  dew  have  their  backs  completely  saturated  with  it,  but  that  under- 
neath the  line  where  their  bodies  turn  to  the  earth,  their  coats  will  be  dry.  In 
the  same  manner  glass  globes  suspended  in  the  air,  on  dew  forming  nights,  will 
be  found  loaded  with  globules  of  dew  upon  the  top,  but  there  will  be  no 
appearance  of  moisture  underneath. 


88  THE    EEASON    WHY. 


'  Dost  thou  know  the  balancings  of  the  clouds,  the  wondrous  works  of  him 
which  is  perfect  in  knowledge."— JOB  xxxvn. 


350.  Why  aro  star-lit  nights  usually  colder  than  cloudy 
nights  ? 

Because  heat  is  radiated,  from  the  earth,  and  passes  away  into 
the  utmost  regions  of  the  atmosphere. 

351.  Why  is  there   little  dew  under  branches  of  thick 
foliage  ? 

Because  the  foliage  acts  as  a  screen,  which  prevents  the  radiated 
heat  of  the  earth  from  passing  away. 

352.  Why  is  there  no  dew  formed  on  windy  nights  ? 
Because,  as  winds  generally  consist  of  dry  air,  they  absorb  and 

bear  away  the  atmospheric  moisture. 

353.  Why  are  valleys  and  low  places  chiefly  subject  to 
dew? 

Because  the  elevated  lands  around  them  prevent  the  disturbance 
of  the  air  in  which  the  moisture  is  held. 

354.  What  bodies  are  most  likely  to  be  covered  with  dew  ? 
All  bodies  that  are  good  radiators  of  heat,  such  as  wool,  swans- 
down,  grass,  leaves  of  plants,  wood,  &c. 

355.  What  bodies  are  likely  to  receive  little  dew  ? 

All  bad  radiators  of  heat,  such  as  polished  metal  surfaces, 
smooth  stones,  and  polished  surfaces  generally.  Dew  will  be  found 
to  lie  more  abundantly  upon  rough  and  woolly  leaves  than  upon 
smooch  ones. 

356.  At  what  period  of  the  night  is  the  largest  amount  of 
dew  usually  formed  ? 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  dew  is  formed  most  copiously  in  the 
mornings  and  evenings.  But  such  is  not  the  case.  It  is  deposited 
at  all  hours  of  the  night,  but  most  plentifully  after  midnight. 

357.  Why  is  dew  formed  most  plentifully  after  midnight  ? 
Because,  as   radiation  has   been  going  on  for  some  time,  the 

temperature   of  the   earth,  ard  of  various    bodies   upon  it,  has 
been  considerably  reduced. 


THE   EEASON   WI1Y.  89 


Out  of  whose  womb  came  the  ice  ?  and  the  hoary  frost  of  heaven,  who  hath 
gendered  it  ?"— JOB  xxxvm. 


358.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  the  maximum  of  dew 
formed  ? 

In  warm  lands  near  the  sea,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers  or  lakes, 
as  the  localities  of  the  Bed  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf  the  coast  of 
Coromandel,  in  Alexandria,  and  Chili. 

359.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  the  minimum  of  dew 
formed  ? 

It  is  quite  absent  in  arid  regions,  in  the  interior  of  continents, 
such  as  Central  Brazil,  the  Sahara,  and  Nubia. 

360.  Why  is  dew  seldom  formed  at  sea  ? 

Because  of  the  defective  radiating  quality  of  the  surface  of 
water. 

361.  Why  is  a  heavy  dew  regarded  as  the  precursor  of  rain  ? 
Because   a   heavy  formation  of  dew  indicates  that  the  air  is 

saturated  with  moisture. 

362.  What  is  hoar-frost  ? 
Hoar-frost  is  frozen  dew. 

363.  Why  is  hoar-frost  said  to  foretell  rain  ? 

Because  it  shows  that  the  air  is  saturated  with  moisture,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  air  being  low,  the  vapours  are  likely  to 
condense,  and  produce  showers. 

364.  What  is  honey-dew  ? 

Honey-dew  is  the  name  applied  to  a  sweet  and  sticky  moisture 
occasionally  deposited  upon  the  leaves  of  plants.  It  is,  however, 
an  error  to  call  it  dew,  as  it  is  procured  by  a  class  of  insects  termed 
aphides. 

365.  What  are  fogs? 

Fogs  are  clouds  formed  near  the  earth's  surface ;  but  London 
fogs  are  distinguished  from  clouds  by  the  fact  that  they  embrace 
in  their  vaporous  folds  the  smoke  and  volatile  matters  imparted  to 
the  air  by  the  operations  of  man.  This  is  also  the  case  with  fogs 
generally  that  arise  near  large  towns. 


90  THE    REASON    WHY. 


:  Hath  the  rain  a  father?  or  who  hath  begotten  the  drops  of  dew?" — 
JOB  xxxvin. 


366.  Why  are  certain  coasts  liable  to  almost  perpetual 
fogs? 

Because  of  local  or  geographical  agencies  which  contribute  to  theii 
production.  The  coasts  of  California  are  almost  constantly  wrapped 
in  fog  ;  and,  almost  as  constantly^  the  western  coast  of  the  American 
continent,  as  far  south  as  Peru.  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
Hudson's  Bay,  are  all  subject  to  dense  and  frequent  fogs  arising 
from  the  condensation  of  vapour  from  the  water  flowing  from  the 
hot  Gulf- stream,  coming  in  contact  with  the  colder  air. 

367.  What  are  dry  fogs  ? 

Dry  fogs  are  characterised  by  a  dull  opaque  appearance  of  the 
atmosphere.  They  are  most  common  in  certain  parts  of  North 
America,  though  they  sometimes  occur  in  Germany  and  in  England. 
They  are  generally  referred  to  the  electrical  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
but  the  theory  of  them  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt. 

368.  What  is  a  mist  ? 

The  term  mist  is  generally  applied  to  vapours  that  rise  over 
mar  shy  places, QY  the  surfaces  of  wafer,  and  roll  or  move  over  the  land. 

369.  What  is  the  difference  let  ween  a  mist  and  a  fog  ? 
Fogs,  as  they  are  known  to  us,  generally  arise  over  the  land,  and 

are  usually  mingled  with  the  smoke  of  large  towns.    Mists  generally 
arise  over  water,  or  wet  surfaces. 

370.  Why  do  mists  and  fogs  disappear  at  sunrise  ? 
Because  the  condensed  vapours  are  again  expanded  and  dis- 
persed by  the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays. 

371.  Why  do  fogs  frequently  rise  in  the  morning  and  fall 
again  in  the  evening. 

Because,  warmed  by  the  sun's  rays,  they  become  more  rarefied, 
and  fly  away  at  an  altitude  where  they  appear  to  be  altogether 
dispelled ;  but  at  night,  when  the  earth  cools  by  radiation,  the 
vapours  near  the  earth  again  condense,  and  settle  in  the  form  of 

fog, 

372.  Why  do  fogs  sometimes  rest  upon  a  given  locality  for 
several  days  together,  and  then  disappear  ? 


THE    EEASGN   WHY. 


91 


"  He  bindeth  up  the  waters  in  his  thick  clouds ;  and  the  cloud  is  not  rent  undei 
them."— JOB  xxvi. 


They  are  probably  kept  near  to  the  surface  of  the  earth  by  a 
superstratum  of  cold  air.  A  cold  air  lying  above,  or  a  cold  air 
lying  below,  might  equally  contribute  to  keep  a  fog  near  the 
surface  of  a  particular  part  of  the  earth,  until  a  flow  of  wind,  or  a 
fall  of  rain,  altered  the  atmospheric  condition. 

There  are  many  interesting  facts  connected  with  the  history  of  dew.  It  has 
attracted  the  attention  of  natural  philosophers  in  all  ages.  But  its  true  theory 
was  never  understood  until  recently.  The  ancients  imagined  that  dews  were 
shed  from  the  stars;  and  the  alchemists  and  physicians  of  the  middle  ages 
believed  that  the  dew  distilled  by  night  possessed  penetrating  and  wonder- 
working powers.  The  ladies  of  those  times  sought  to  preserve  their  beauty  by 
washing  in  dew,  which  they  regarded  as  a  "  celestial  wash."  They  collected  it 
by  placing  upon  the  grass  heaps  of  wool,  upon  the  threads  of  which  the  magic 
drops  clustered. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

373.   What  are  clouds  ? 

Clouds  are  volumes  of  vapour,  usually  elevated  to  a  considerable 
height. 


Pig.  4.— CIREO-CUlirHJS,  OE  SOLDER  CLOUD. 

374.  Wlience  do  clouds  arise  ? 

From  the  evaporation  of  water  at  the  earth's  surface. 

375.  Why  do  we  not  see  them  ascend? 

We  do,  sometimes,  in  the  form  of  what  we  call  mists,  but 
generally  the  vapours  that  rise  and  contribute  to  the  formation  of 
clouds  are  so  thin  that  they  are  invisible. 


THE   EEASON   WHY. 


"With  clouds  hecovereth  the  light,  and  commandeth  it  not  to  shine  by  the 
cloud  that  cometh  betwixt."—  JOB  xxxvi. 


376.  Why,  if  they  are  invisible  ivJien  they  rise,  do  they 
become  visible  when  they  have  ascended  ? 

Because  the  vapours  become  coolecL  in  passing  through  the  air, 
and  form  a  denser  body. 

377.  TP  hy,  when  they  are  condensed,  do  they  not  follow  the 
course  of  gravitation,  and  descend  ? 

Because  the  vapours  form  into  minute  vesicles,  which  we  may 
call  vapour  bubbles,  and  these,  being  warmed  by  the  sun,  are 
specifically  lighter  than  the  air. 

Because,  also,  the  lower  parts  of  clouds  do  partially  descend,  but 
again  becoming  more  rarefied  by  meeting  with  a  warmer  atmo- 
sphere, they  again  ascend,  and  are  thus  poised  upon  the  air. 

Because,  also,  there  is  always  a  degree  of  atmospheric  motion 
upward,  caused  by  the  convection  of  heat  from  the  earth's  sur- 
face. And,  although  there  must  also  be  downward  movements  of 
the  air  to  supply  the  place  of  that  which  has  ascended,  still  the 
heat  of  the  ascending  air,  combined  with  its  upward  movement, 
expands  and  floats  the  vapour  of  the  clouds. 

378.  At  what  height  do  clouds  usually  fly  ? 

They  fly  ac  every  degree  of  altitude;  but  clouds  of  specific 
character  are  said  to  fly  at  given  altitudes,  or  to  occupy  certain 
ranges  of  altitude.  We  will  give  their  probable  altitudes  when 
speaking  of  the  specific  clouds. 


Fig.  5.— CIRRUS,  OK  CURL  CLOUD. 

379.  How  many  descriptions  of  clouds  are  there  ? 
There  are  seven. 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  93 


'Who  giveth  rain  upon  the  earth,  and  sendeth  waters  upon  the  fields."— 
JOB  y. 


1.  The  Cirrus  (Fig.  5),  estimated  range  of  altitude  from  10,000 
to  24,000  feet. 

2.  The  Cumulus  (Fig.  7),  from  3,000  to  10,000  feet. 

3.  The  Stratus,  an  extended  continuous  level  sheet  of  cloud, 
increasing  from  beneath.     They  fly  very  low. 

4.  The  Nimbus  (Fig.  10),  1,500  to  5,000  feet. 

5.  The  Cirro-cumulus  (Fig.  4),  from  3,000  to  20,000  feet. 

6.  The  Cirro-stratus  (Fig.  6),  from  5,000  to  10,000  feet. 

7.  The  Cumulo-stratus  (Fig.  9),  from  3,000  to  10,000  feet. 


CIRRO-STRATUS,  OK  WANE  CLOUD. 

The  estimated  heights  given  must  be  looked  upon  as  very  conjectural, 
although  they  have  been  derived  from  the  best  existing  authorities.  It  is  sufficient 
to  know  that  the  range  of  the  altitude  of  the  various  clouds  is  from  that  of  the 
Nimbus,  or  thunder  cloud,  1,500  feet,  to  that  of  the  Cirrus,  24,000  feet,  the 
others  being  intermediate.  The  first  three  of  the  clouds  above  enumerated 
constitute  what  are  called  the  primary  forms.  The  remaining  four  are  called 
secondary  forms,  because  they  arise,  as  their  names  generally  indicate,  out  of 
combinations  of  the  primary  forms.  Although,  from  the  frequent  mingling  of 
clouds,  it  is  not  always  practicable  to  identify  them  by  the  adopted  classification, 
still,  as  there  is  generally  a  prevalence  of  one  type  of  cloud  over  another,  the 
observer  would  be  able  to  distinguish  a  "  Cirrus  sky,"  or  Cirro-cumulus  sky,"  &c. 
Upon  some  -occasions  the  typical  characters  of  the  clouds  are  beautifully 
defined;  and  the  contemplation  of  their  forms,  and  the  laws  of  their  formation, 
affords  infinite  pleasure  to  the  observer.  The  advantages  of  scientific  knowledge 
are  such,  that  whether  you  look  downwards  to  the  earth,  or  upwards  to  the  sky, 
you  have  still  the  writing  of  God  to  read. 

380.   What  produces  the  various  shapes  of  clouds  t 

1.  The  state  of  the  atmosphere. 

2.  The  electrical  condition  of  the  clouds. 

3.  The  movements  of  the  atmosphere. 

4.  The  season  of  the  year. 


94 


THE   EEASON   WHY. 


•'Behold,  he  withholdeth  the  waters,  and  they  dry  up;  also  he  sendeth  them 
out,  and  they  overturn  the  earth." — JOB  xn. 

381.   What  are  the  dimensions  of  clouds  ? 

A  single  cloud  has  been  estimated  to  have  as  many  as  twenty 
square  miles  of  surface,  and  to  be  above  a  mile  in  thickness,  while 
others  are  no  larger  than  a  house,  or  a  man's  hand. 


Fig.  7.— CUMULUS,  OE  PILE  CLOUD. 

.  382.  Sow  are  clouds  affected  ly  winds  ? 

If  cold  winds  blow  upon  the  clouds,  the  cold  condenses  the  vapour, 
turning  the  clouds  into  rain.  But  if  warm  dry  winds  blow  upon 
the  clouds,  they  rarefy  the  vapour  to  a  ^j^ater  degree,  and 
temporarily  disperse  the  clouds. 

383.  Sow  do  ivinds  affect  the  shapes  of  clouds  ? 

When  winds  are  mild  and  gentle,  the  clouds  break  into  small 
patches,  and  rise  to  a  considerable  height.  But  when  the  winds  are 
cold  and  blustering,  the  clouds  fly  low,  and  roll  along  in  heavy 
masses. 

384.  Why  are  east  winds  usually  dry  ? 

Because  in  coming  towards  England  they  pass  over  vast  continents 
of  land,  and  comparatively  little  ocean.  Hence  they  are  not  loaded 
with  vapours. 

385.  Why  do  west  winds  generally  bring  rain  ? 

Because  they  come  across  the  Atlantic,  and  are  heavily  charged 
with  vapour. 

386.  Why  are  north  winds  generally  cold  and  dry  ? 
Because  they  come  from  the  arctic  ocean,  over  vast  areas  of  ice 

and  snow. 


THE   REASON   WHY. 


95 


*  Terrors  are  turned  upon  m« :  they  pursue  my  soul  as  the  wind ;  and  m  j 
welfare  passeth  away  as  a  cloud."— JOB  xxx. 


387.   WTiy  are  south  winds  warm  and  rainy  ? 

Because  they  come  from  the  southern  regions,  heated  by  the 
hot  earth  and  sands,  and  as  they  cross  the  sea  they  absorb  a  large 
amount  of  vapour. 


Fig.  9.-^CTJMULO-STEA.TUS,  OR  TWAIN  CLOUD. 

388.  Why  are  clouds  said  to  indicate  the  changes  of  the 
weather  ? 

Because,  as  it  is  the  state  of  the  clouds  that,  to  a  great  extent, 
determines  the  state  of  the  weather,  the  formation  of  the  clouds 
must  predicate  approaching  changes . 

389.  What  do  cirrus  clouds  foretell  ? 

Cirrus  clouds  foretell  fine  weather,  when  they  fly  high,  and  are 
thin  and  light. 

They  foretell  light  rain  when,  after  a  long  continuance  of  fine 
weather,  they  form  fleecy  lines  stretched  across  the  sky. 

They  foretell  a  gale  of  wind  when,  for  some  successive  days,  they 
gather  in  the  same  quarter  of  the  heavens,  as  if  denoting  the  point 
from  which  to  expect  the  coming  gale.  (Pig.  5). 

390.  What  do  cumulus  clouds  foretell  ? 

Cumulus  clouds,  when  they  are  well  defined,  and  advance  with 
the  wind,  foretell  fin  e  weather. 


96  THE    SEASON   WHY. 


1  When  he  made  a  decree  for  the  rain,  and  a  way  for  the  lightning  and  the 
thunder." — JOB  xxvm. 


When  they  are  thin  and  dull,  and  float  against  the  wind,  or  in 
opposition  to  the  lower  currents,  they  foretell  rain. 

When  they  increase  in  size,  and  become  dull  and  grey  at  sunset^ 
they  predict  a  thunder-storm.  (Fig.  7.) 

331.   What  do  stratus  clouds  foretell  ? 
Stratus  clouds  foretell  damp  and  cheerless  weather. 

392.  What  do  nimbus  clouds  foretell  ? 

Nimbus  clouds  foretell  rain,  storm,  and  thunder.     (Fig.  10.) 

393.  What  do  cirro-cumulus  clouds  foretell  ? 

Cirro-cumulus  clouds,  in  summer,  foretell  increasing  heat 
attended  by  mild  rain,  and  a  south  wind  ;  but  in  winter  they  com- 
monly precede  the  breaking  up  of  a  frost,  and  the  setting  in  of 
foggy  and  wet  weather.  (Fig.  4.) 

304.   WJiat  do  cirro-stratus  clouds  foretell  ? 

Cirro-stratus  clouds  foretell  rain  or  snow,  according  to  the 
season  of  the  year. 

These  clouds  extend  in  long  horizontal  streaks,  thinning  away  at 
their  base,  and  in  parts  becoming  wavy  or  patchy. 

When  they  are  thus  defined  in  the  heavens  they  are  a  certain 
indication  of  bad  weather.  (Fig.  6.) 

395.   What  do  cumulo-stratus  clouds  foretell  ? 

Cumulo-stratus  clouds  usually  foretell  a  change  of  weather— 
from  rain  to  fine,  or  from  fine  to  rain.  (Fig.  9.) 


Fig.  10.— NIMBUS    OE  STOEM  CLOUD. 


THE   REASON   WHY.  97 


"  Behold,  I  will  put  a  fleece  of  wool  in  the  floor ;  and  if  the  dew  be  on  the  fleece 

only,  and  it  be  dry  upon  all  the  earth  beside,  then  shall  I  know 

that  thou  wilt  save  Israel.    *  *   * 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

396.  Why  are  cloudy  days  colder  than  sunny  days  ? 
Because  the  clouds  intercept  the  solar  rays  in  their  course 

towards  the  earth. 

397.  Why  are  cloudy  nights  warmer  than  cloudless  nights  ? 

Because  the  clouds  radiate  back  to  the  earth  the  heat  which  the 
earth  evolves  ? 

Because,  also,  the  clouds  radiate  to  the  earth  the  heat  they  have 
derived  from  the  solar  rays  during  a  cloudy  day. 

398.  Why  is  the  earth  warmer  than  the  air  during  sun- 
shine  ? 

Because  the  earth  freely  absorbs  the  heat  of  the  solar  rays;  but 
the  air  derives  comparatively  little  heat  from  the  same  source. 

399.  Why  does  the  earth  become  colder  than  the  air  after 
sunset  ? 

Because  the  earth  parts  with  its  heat  freely  by  radiation  ;  but 
the  air  does  not. 

400.  Why  do  glasses,  mats,  or  screens,  prevent  the  frost 
from  billing  plants  ? 

Because  they  prevent  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  plants,  and 
also  from  the  earth  beneath  them. 

401.  Why  are  the  screens  frequently  covered  with  dew  on 
their  exposed  sides  ? 

Because  they  radiate  heat  from  both  their  surfaces.  A  piece  of 
glass,  laid  horizontally  over  the  earth,  would  radiate  heat  both 
upwards  and  downwards.  But  on  its  lower  surface  it  would 
receive  the  radiated  heat  of  the  earth,  while  from  its  upper  surface 
it  would  throw  off  its  own  heat  and  become  cool.  Therefore  dew 
would  be  deposited  upon  the  upper,  but  not  on  the  under  surface. 

402.  Why  does  dew  rest  upon  the  upper  surfaces  of  leaves  ? 

5 


98  THE    EEASON   WHY. 


'  And  it  was  so :  for  he  rose  up  early  on  the  morrow,  and  thrust  the  fleece 
together,  and  wringed  the  dew  out  of  the  fleece,  a  bowl  full  of  water. 


Because  the  under  surfaces  receive  the  radiated  warmth  of  the 
earth. 

403.  Why  are  cultivated  lands  subject  to  heavier  dews 
than  those  that  are  uncultivated  ? 

Because  cultivation  breaks  up  the  hard  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
thus  its  radiating  power  is  increased. 

404.  Why  is  the  gravel  walls  through,  a  lawn  comparatively 
dry  while  the  grass  of  the  lawn  is  wet  with  dew  ? 

Because  gravel  is  a  bad  radiator,  but  grass  is  a  good  radiator. 

405.  What  benefit  results  from  this  arrangement  ? 

In  cultivated  lands,  where  moisture  is  required,  it  is  induced  by 
the  very  necessity  which  demands  it ;  while  in  rocky  and  barren 
places,  where  it  would  be  of  no  good,  dew  does  not  form. 

406.  Why  does  little  dew  form  at  the  base  of  hedges  and 
walls,  and  around  the  trunks  of  trees  ? 

Because  those  bodies  in  some  degree  counteract  the  radiation  of 
heat  from  the  earth ;  and  they  also  radiate  heat  from  their  own 
substances. 

407.  Why  do  heavy  morning  dews  and  mists  usually  come 
together  ? 

Because  they  both  have  their  origin  in  the  humidity  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  temperature  of  the  earth  having  fallen,  dew  has 
been  deposited ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  condensation  of  the 
vapour  in  the  air  has  formed  a  screen  over  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
which  has  checked  the  further  radiation  of  heat,  and,  consequently, 
the  further  formation  of  dew .  The  sun  rises,  therefore,  upon  an 
atmosphere  charged  with  visible  vapour  at  the  earth's  surface,  and 
his  first  sloping  rays,  having  little  poioer  to  warm  the  atmosphere, 
the  mist  continues  visible  for  some  time. 

408.  What  effect  have  winds  upon  the  formation  of  dew  ? 

Winds,  generally,  and  especially  when  rapid,  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  dew.  But  those  winds  that  are  moist,  and  contribute  to  the 
formation  of  clouds,  indirectly  aid  the  formation  of  dew  through  the 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  99 


"And  Gideon  said  unto  God,  *  *  *  Let  it  now  be  dry  only  upon  the  fleece,  and 
upon  all  the  ground  let  there  be  dew. 

formation  of  clouds,    and  also  by  the  moisture  they  impart  to 
the  air. 

409.  Why  does  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  sometimes 
form  clouds,  and  at  others  form  fogs,  mists,  dews,  fyc.  ? 

The  result  depends  upon  the  varying  temperature,  motion,  and 
direction  of  the  atmosphere. 

A  warm  light  atmosphere,  of  a  few  day's  duration,  will  elevate 
the  vapours  to  the  region  where  they  are  formed  into  clouds. 

A  chill  air,  lying  upon  the  surface  of  the  warmer  earth,  will 
occasion  mists  or  fogs. 

A  cold  earth,  acting  upon  the  vapours  contained  in  a  warmer 
atmosphere,  will  condense  them  and  occasion  dews. 

410.  Why  are  frosty  mornings  usually  clear  ? 

Because,  in  the  cold  atmosphere  which  preceded  the  frost,  there 
was  but  little  evaporation ;  and  now  .that  the  frost  has  set  in,  the 
vapours  that  existed  have  become  frozen  in  the  form  of  hoar-frost. 

411.  "Why  are  clear  nights  usually  cold? 

Because  the  "screen"  afforded  by  the  clouds  does  not  exist; 
therefore  the  heat  of  the  earth  escapes,  while  the  vapours  of  the  air 
are  abstracted  from  it  by  condensation  into  dew,  thereby  imparting 
great  clearness  to  the  nights. 

412.  Why  are  hoar-frosts,  or,  as  they  are   termed,   "  white 
frosts"  so  frequent,  and  "  Hack  frosts"  so  unusual? 

Because  white,  or  hoarfrosts,  result  from  the  coldness  of  the 
earth,  which,  from  its  great  radiating  power,  is  always  varying. 
But  black-frosts  result  from  the  coldness  of  the  air,  which  is  liable 
to  less  variation  of  temperature  than  the  earth. 

413.  What  is  a  black-frost? 

A  black  frost  results  from  the  coldness  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
is  at  the  time  overshadowed  by  a  dull  cloud,  giving  a  dark- 
ness to  everything,  and  a  leaden  appearance  to  the  frozen  surface 
of  water. 

414.  Why  are  black-frosts  said  to  last  ? 


100  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


'And  God  did  so  that  night :  for  it  was  dry  upon  the  fleece  only,  and  there  was 
dew  oh  all  the  ground." — JUDGES  vi. 


Because  as  they  result  from  the  temperature  of  the  air,  which  is 
less  likely  to  vary  than  that  of  the  earth,  there  is  a  probability 
that  the  coldness  thereof  will  last  for  some  time. 

415.   What  benefits  result  from  the  radiation  of  heat,  fyc,  ? 

But  for  the  radiation  of  heat,  we  should  be  subjected  to  the  most 
unequal  temperatures.  The  setting"  of  the  sun  would  be  like  the 
going  out  of  a  mighty  fire.  The  earth  would  become  suddenly 
cold,  and  its  inhabitants  would  have  to  bury  themselves  in  warm 
covering;,  to  wait  the  return  of  day.  By  the  radiation  of  heat, 
an  equilibrium  of  temperature  is  provided  for,  without  which  we 
should  require  a  new  order  of  existence. 

The  amount  of  heat  which  our  earth  receives  from  the  sun,  and  the  economy 
of  that  heat  by  the  laws  of  radiation,  reflection,  absorption,  and  convection, 
are  exactly  proportionate  to  the  necessities  of  our  planet,  and  the  living  things 
that  inhabit  it.  It  is  held  by  philosophers  that  any  change  in  th  e  orbit  of  our 
earth,  which  would  either  increase  or  decrease  the  amount  of  heat  falling  upon 
it,  would,  of  necessity,  be  fallowed  by  the  annihilation  of  all  the  existing  races. 
The  planets  Mercury  and  Venus,  which  are  distant  respectively  37  millions  of 
miles,  and  63  millions  of  miles,  from  the  great  source  of  solar  heat,  possess  a 
temperature  which  would  melt  our  solid  rocks;  while  Uranus  (1,800  millions  of 
miles),  and  Neptune  (whose  distance  from  the  sun  has  not  been  determined), 
must  receive  so  small  an  amount  of  heat,  that  water,  such  as  ours,  would  become 
as  solid  as  the  hardest  rock,  and  our  atmosphere  would  be  resolved  into  a  liquid ! 
Yet,  poised  in  the- mysterious  balance  of  opposing  forces,  our  orb  flies  unerringly 
on  its  course,  at  the  rate  of  65,01)3  miles  an  hour ;  preserving,  in  its  wonderful 
flight,  that  precise  relation  to  the  sun,  which  takes  from  his  life-inspiring  rays 
the  exact  degree  of  heat,  which,  being  shared  by  every  atom  of  matter,  and 
every  form  of  organic  existence,  is  just  the  amount  needed  to  constitute  the  heat- 
life  of  the  world  ! 


CHAPTER  XX. 

416.  What  is  rain  ? 

Rain  is  the  vapour  of  the  clouds  which,  being  condensed  by  a 
fall  of  temperature,  forms  drop?  of  water  that  descend  to  the  earth. 

It  is  the  return  to  the  earth  in  the  form  of  water,  of  the  moisture 
absorbed  by  the  air  in  the  form  of  vapour. 

417.  Does  rain  ever  occur  without  clouds  ? 

It  sometimes,  but  rarely  happens,  that  a  sudden  transition  from 


THE   BEASON,  JMF~A Tf."-  '  >   '-  10 1 


*  Canst  thou  lift  up  thy  voice  to  the  clouds,  that  abundance  of  waters  may 
cover  thee?"— JOB  xxxvm. 


warmth  to  cold  will  precipitate  the  moisture  of  the  air,  without 
the  formation  of  visible  clouds. 

418.  Why  are  drops  of  rain  sometimes  large  and  at  other 
times  small  ? 

Because  the  drops,  in  falling,  meet  and  unite,  and  also  gather 
moisture  in  their  descent.  The  greater  the  height  from  which  a 
rain  drop  has  descended,  the  larger  it  is,  provided  that  its  whole 
course  lay  through  a  rainy  atmosphere. 

The  size  of  the  drops  is  also  influenced  by  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  the  degree  of  cold,  and  the  rapidity 
of  the  change  of  temperature,  by  which  the  drops  are  produced. 

419.  In  what  seasons  of  the  year  are  rains  most  prevalent  ? 

Throughout  Central  Europe  rains  are  most  prevalent  in 
summery  but  in  Southern  Europe  the  preponderance  is  on  the  side 
of  winter  rains. 

420.  In  what  months  of  the  year   does    it    rain    most 
frequently  in  this  country  ? 

It  rains  more  frequently  from  September  to  March,  than 
from  March  to  September;  but  the  heaviest  rains  occur  from 
March  to  September. 

421.  Why  are  there  more  rainy  days  from  September  to 
March  ? 

Because  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  more  frequently  lowered  to 
that  degree  which  precipitates  its  vapours. 

Months  in  the  order  of  their  comparative  wetness :— 1.  October.  2.  February. 
3.  July.  4.  September.  5.  January.  6.  December, 

Months  in  the  order  of  their  comparative  dryness :— 1.  March.  2.  January. 
3.  May.  4.  August.  5.  April.  6.  November. 

422.  In  what  part  of  the  world  does  the  greatest  quantity 
of  rain  fall  ? 

The  greatest  quantity  of  rain  falls  near  the  equator,  and  th« 
Amount  decreases  towards  thepolet. 


*  *     £,        a  "  .        *•       w         fc-\  -i 

102  "  *!rafc  SEASON  WHY. 


'Who  can  number  the  clouds  in  wisdom?   or  who  can  stay  the  bottles  of 
heaven."— JOB  xxxvm. 


423.  In  what  part  of  the  world  do   the  heaviest  rains 
occur?  « 

The  heaviest  rains  occur  in  the  tropics,  during  the  hot  season. 
The  drops  of  rain  in  the  tropical  regions  are  so  large,  and  the  force 
with  which  they  descend  so  great,  that  their  splash  upon  the  skin 
causes  a  smarting  sensation. 

424.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  do  the  least  rains  occur  ? 

There  are  some  parts  of  the  earth  which  are  rainless,  such  as 
Egypt,  the  desert  of  Sahara,  the  table  lands  of  Persia  and  Mont- 
golia,  the  rocky  flat  of  Arabia  Petrae,  &c. 

425*  Sow  many  rainy  days  are  there  in  a  year  ? 

The  frequency  of  rainy  days  is  greatest  in  countries  near  the  sea, 
and  their  number  decreases  the  further  we  journey  from  the  sea- 
border  towards  the  inland.  In  England  it  rains  on  an  average  152 
to  155  days  in  the  year. 

426.  In  what  part  of  England  does  the  greatest  amount  of 
rainfall  ? 

In  the  town  of  Keswick,  in  Cumberland,  where  63  inches  of  rain 
fall  in  a  year ;  Kendal,  in  Westmoreland,  58  inches  ;  Liverpool,  34 
inches ;  Dublin,  25  inches ;  Lincoln,  24  inches  ;  London,  21  inches. 

427.  Why  do  the  heaviest  rains  occur  at  the  tropics  ? 
Because  the  hot  air  absorbs  a  large  amount  of  vapour,  and  rises 

into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  where  the  vapours  are 
suddenly  condensed  into  heavy  rains,  by  cold  currents  from  the 


428.  Why  does  the  greatest  quantity  of  rain  fall  at  the 
equator  ? 

Because  the  hot  air  absorbs  a  large  amount  of  vapour,  and  as  the 
atmosphere  is  usually  calm,  there  is  an  absence  of  currents,  by  which 
the  saturated  air  would  be  removed.  In  this,  which  is  called  "  the 
Region  of  Calms"  rain  falls  almost  daily. 

429.  Why  are  some  parts  of  the  earth  rainless? 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  103 


"  Thou,  O  God,  didst  send  a  plentiful  rain,  whereby  thou  didst  confirm  thine 
inheritance,  when  it  was  weary."  —  PSALM 


Because,  being  situated  in  tropical  or  torrid  latitudes,  and  at  a 
distance  from  the  ocean,  the  atmosphere  above  them  is  always  in  a 
dry  state. 

430.  When  is  air  said  to  ~be  saturated  with  vapour  ? 
When  it  cannot  take  up  a  larger  quantity  than  that  which  it 

already  holds. 

When  common  salt  is  dissolved  in  water,  until  the  water  can  take  np  no 
more,  the  water  is  then  said  to  be  saturated  with  salt. 

431.  What  proportion  of  water  is  air  capable  of  sustaining 
in  the  form  of  vapour  ? 

The  amount  of  water  held  in  suspension  by  the  air  averages  the 
following  proportion  :  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  cftr  contain  as 
much  vapour  as,  were  it  condensed  to  water,  would  yield  about 
two  fifths  of  a  pint. 

But  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  air  are  capable  of  holding  half  -a- 
pint  of  water;  and  this  may  be  regarded  as  the  point  of 
saturation. 

Thus,  in  a  room  ten  feet  square  and  ten  feet  high,  the  air,  at  the  point  of 
saturation,  would  hold  in  the  form  of  vapour,  half-a-pint  of  water.  It  must 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  point  of  saturation  necessarily  varies  with 
the  temperature  of  the  air. 

432.  Why  are  cloudy  days  and  nights  not  always  wet  ? 
Because  the  air  has  not  reached  the  state  of  saturation. 

433.  Wliy  does  rain  purify  the  air  ? 

Because  it  produces  motion  in  the  particles  of  the  air,  by  which 
they  are  intermixed.  And  it  precipitates  noxious  vapours,  and 
cleanses  the  face  of  the  earth  from  unhealthy  accumulations. 

434.  Why  are  mountainous  localities  more  rainy  than  fiat 
ones  ? 

Because  the  mountains  attract  the  clouds;  and  because  the 
clouds  that  are  flying  low  are  borne  against  the  sides  of  the 
mountains  and  directed  upwards,  where  they  meet  with  cold 
currents  of  air, 

435.  Why  does  more  rain  fall  ly  night  than  ly  day  ? 


104  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water  brooks,  so  panteth  my  soul  after  thee 
O  God."— PSALM  XLII. 


Because  by  night  the  temperature  of  the  air,  heated  during  the 
day,  falls  to  that  degree  which  condenses  its  vapours  into  rain. 

436.  WTiy    do   hunches    of  dried  sea-weed  indicate   the 
'probability  of  coming  rain  ? 

Because  they  readily  imbibe  moisture,  and  when  they  become 
soft  and  damp  they  show  that  the  air  is  approaching  the  point  of 
saturation. 

437.  Why  does  the  weather-toy,  called  the  " weather-cock" 
foretell  the  probability  of  rain  ? 

Because  it  is  made  with  a  piece  of  cat-gut  which  swells  with 
moisture,  and  as  it  swells,  shrinks.  The  cat-gut  is  so  applied  that 
when  it  shrinks,  it  turns  a  rod  which  sends  the  man  out  of  the 
house,  and  when  it  dries  it  sends  the  woman  out.  Therefore, 
when  the  man  appears,  it  is  a  sign  of  wet,  and  when  the  woman 
appears  it  is  a  sign  of  dry  weather. 

There  is  another  toy,  called  the  Capuchin,  which  is  made  upon  the  same 
principle.  The  figure  lifts  a  hood  over  its  head  when  wet  is  approaching,  and 
takes  it  off  when  the  weather  is  becoming  dry.  In  this  case,  a  piece  of  cat-gut 
is  also  employed.  Various  weather-toys  may  be  made  upon  this  principle — 
among  others,  a  little  umbrella,  which  will  open  on  the  approach  of  wet,  and 
close  on  the  return  of  fine  weather. ' 

A  gentleman  once  made  a  wooden  horse,  which  he  declared  should  of  itself 
walk  across  a  room,  without  machinery  of  any  kind.  The  assertion  was 
discredited;  but  the  horse  was  placed  in  a  room  close  to  the  wall  on  one  side. 
The  room  was  locked,  and  otherwise  fastened,  so  that  no  one  could  interfere 
with  the  experiment.  After  a  time  the  door  was  opened,  and  it  was  found 
that  the  horse  had  actually  crossed  the  floor,  and  stood  on  the  opposite 
side.  The  horse  was  made  from  wood  of  a  peculiar  kind,  liable  to  great 
expansion  in  wet  weather,  and  cut  in  a  manner  to  produce  the  greatest 
elongation.  The  fore  hoofs  were  so  made  that  where  they  were  set  they  woul« 
remain,  so  that  the  contracting  parts  should  draw  up  from  behind.  It  is  easj 
to  understand  how,  in  this  way,  the  wooden  horse  crossed  the  apartment. 

438.  Wliy  does   ladies*   hair  drop  out  of  curl  upon  the 
approach  of  damp  weather  ? 

Because  the  hair  absorbs  moisture,  which  causes  its  spirals  to 
relax  and  unfold. 

439    Why  is  it  said  in  mountainous  countries  that  rain  is 


THE   REASON    WHY.  105 


'  Hast  thou  entered  into  the  treasures  of  the  snow ;  or  hast  thou  seen  tho 
treasures  of  the  hail."— JOB  xxxvm. 


coming,  because  the  mountains  are  '•'•putting  their  night-caps 
on?" 

Because  the  clouds.^Lescend  when  they  are  heavy  with  vapour, 
and  being  attracted  to  the  mountain  tops  they  are  said  to  "  cap  the 
mountains" 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

440.  What  is  snow  ? 

Snow  is  congealed  vapour,  which  would  have  formed  rain  ;  but, 
through  the  coldness  of  the  air,  has  been  frozen  in  its  descent  into 
crystaline  forms.  (Fig.  1.) 

441.  Why  is  snow  white  ? 

Because  it  reflects  all  the  component  rays  of  light. 

442.  Why  is  snow  said  to  be  warm,  while  white  garments 
are  worn  for  coolness  ? 

Snow  is  warm  by  virtue  of  its  light  and  woolly  texture.  But  it 
is  also  warm  on  account  of  its  whiteness  ;  for,  had  it  been  black,  ifc 
would  have  absorbed  the  heat  of  the  sun,  which  would  have  thaived 
the  snow.  Instead  of  which,  it  reflects  heat ;  and  the  reflected  heat 
falls  upon  bodies  above  the  snow,  while  the  warmth  of  the  earth 
is  preserved  beneath  it.  White  clothing  is  cool,  because  it  reflects 
from  the  body  of  the  wearer  the  heat  of  the  sun.  White  snow  is 
warm,  because  it  rejlects  the  sun's  heat  upon  bodies. 

There  are  few  persons  but  have  felt  the  effect  of  the  sun's  rays  reflected^  the 
white  snow  on  a  clear  wintry  day.  And,  as  regards  the  warmth  of  snow 
towards  the  earth,  by  preventing  the  radiation  of  heat,  it  has  been  found  that 
a  thermometer  buried  four  inches  deep  in  snow  has  shown  a  temperature  of 
nine  degrees  higher  than  at  the  surface. 

443.  Why  are  lofty  mountains  always  covered  with  snow  ? 
Because  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere  are  intensely  cold. 

444.  Why  are  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere  intensely 
cold? 

Because  the  atmosphere  retains  but  little  of  the  heat  of  the  sun'* 
5* 


106  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


"  He  causeth  the  vapours  to  ascend  from  the  ends  of  the  earth :  he  maketh 
lightnings  for  the  rain  :  he  bringeth  the  wind  out  of  his  treasuries."— Ps.  xxxv. 


rays  as  they  pass  to  the  earth.  Because  at  high  altitudes  the  air 
is  greatly  rarefied.  And  because  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
earth  does  not  materially  affect  such  high  regions. 

445.  What  is  meant  ty  the  snow  line ? 

The  snow  line  is  the  estimated  altitude  in  all  countries  where 
snow  would  be  formed.  Even  at  the  equator,  at  an  altitude  of 
15,000  to  16,000  feet  from  the  level  of  the  sea,  snow  is  found  upon 
the  mountain  summits,  where  it  perpetually  lies.  As  we  proceed 
north  or  south  from  the  equator  the  snow  line  lessens  in  altitude. 
Had  we  in  England  a  mountain  6,000  feet  high,  it  would  be  per- 
petually crowned  with  snoio. 

446.  Why  do  we  near  of  red  snow  ? 

Red  snow  is  the  name  given  to  the  snow  in  the  arctic  regions 
upon  which  a  minute  vegetable  (probably  the  Protoccus  nivalis) 
grows,  imparting  to  the  snow  a  red  colour.  Recent  microscopic 
investigations  have  shown  it  to  consist  of  a  minute  vegetable  cell, 
which  secretes  a  red  colouring  matter. 

Snow  is  found  to  be  of  greater  import  nee  to  man  than  is  generally  supposed. 
But,  although  in  this  country  we. are  enabled  to  recognise  the  hand  of  Provi- 
dence in  the  gift,  there  are  latitudes  wherein  the  blessing  thus  conferred  is 
more  deeply  felt.  In  such  countries  as  Canada,  Sweden,  and  Russia,  the  falling 
of  snow  is  looked  for  with  glad  anticipations,  quite  equalling  those  which 
herald  the  "  harvest-home"  of  England,  or  the  "  vintage"  of  France.  No  sooner 
is  the  ground  covered  with  snow,  than  cranky  old  vehicles  that  had  been  jolting 
over  rough  roads,  and  sticking  fast  in  deep  ruts  of  mud,  are  wheeled  aside,  and 
swift  sledges  take  their  place.  Towns  distant  from  each  other  find  an  easy 
mode  of  communication ;  the  markets  are  enlivened*  and  trade  thrives.  Snow 
supplies  a  kind  of  railroad,  covering  the  entire  face  of  the  country,  and  sledges 
glide  over  it,  almost  with  the  speed  of  the  locomotive. 

447.  What  is  sleet? 

Sleet  is  snow  which,  in  falling,  has  met  with  a  warmer  current  of 
air  than  that  in  which  it  congealed.  It  therefore  partially  melts 
and  forms  a  kind  of  wet  snow. 

448.  What  is  hail  ? 

Hail  is  also  the  frozen  moisture  of  the  clouds.     It  is  probably 
formed  by  rain  drops  in  their  dpscent  to  the  earth,  meeting  with  an 
exceedingly  cold  current  of  ait    by  which  they  become  suddenly 
frozen  into  hard  masses. 


THE   SEASON    WHY.  107 


If  the  clouds  be  full  of  rain,  they  shall  empty  themselves  upon  the  earth."— 
ECCLES.  xi. 


It  is  also  supposed  that  the  electrical  state  of  the  air  and  of  the 
clouds  influences  the  formation  of  hail. 

449.  Why  is  it  supposed  that  the  electrical  state  of  the 
air  and  the  clouds  affects  the  formation  of  hail  ? 

Because  hail  is  more  common  in  the  summer  than  at  other 
seasons,  and  is  frequently  attended  by  storms  of  thunder  and, 
lightning. 

450.  Why  do  Tiail-storms  most  frequently  occur  ~by  day  ? 
Because  the  clouds,  being  charged  with  vapour  to   saturation, 

favour  the  formation  of  hail  by  sudden  electrical  or  atmospheric 
changes.  In  the  gradual  cooling  of  night,  the  clouds  would  expend 
themselves  in  rain. 

Astonishing  facts  respecting  hail-storms  are  upon  record.  In  1719  there  fell 
at  Kremo,  hailstones  weighing  six  pounds.  In  1828  there  was  a  fall  of  ice  at 
Horsley,  in  Staffordshire,  some  of  the  pieces  of  which  were  three  inches  long,  by 
one  inch  broad ;  and  other  solid  pieces  were  about  three  inches  in  circumference. 
Hail  storms  are  most  frequent  in  June  and  July,  and  least  frequent  in  April 
and  October.  Hail  clouds  float  much  lower  in  the  sky  than  other  clouds ;  their 
edges  are  marked  by  frequent  heavy  folds ;  and  their  lower  edges  are  streaked 
with  white,  the  other  portions  being  massive  and  black.  (Fig.  10.) 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

451.   What  is  light  ? 

Light,  according  to  Newton,  is  the  effect  of  luminous  particles 
which  dart  from  the  surfaces  of  bodies  in  all  directions.  According 
to  this  theory,  the  solar  light  which  we  receive  would  depart  from 
the  sun  and  travel  to  the  earth. 

According  to  Huyghens,  light  is  caused  by  an  infinitely  elastic 
ether,  diffused  through  all  space.  This  ether,  existing  everywhere, 
is  excited  into  waves,  or  vibrations,  by  the  luminous  body. 

The  theory  of  light  is  so  undetermined  that  neither  the  views  of  Newton, 
nor  those  of  Huyghens,  can  be  said  to  be  exclusively  adopted.  Writers  upon 
natural  philosophy  seize  hold  of  either  or  both  of  those  theories,  as  they  present 
themselves  more  or  less  favourably  in  the  explanation  of  natural  phenomena. 
In  "  The  Reason  Why,"  as  we  have  to  speak  of  the  effects  of  light  rather  than 
of  its  cav&e,  we  shall  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  the  doubtful  points.  But  let  no 


108  THE   BEASON  WHY. 


"  And  God  said,  Let  there  be  light :  and  there  was  light. 

one  be  discouraged  by  the  fact  that  the  theory  of  light,  as,  indeed,  of  all  the 
imponderable  agents,  is  imperfectly  understood.  Rather  Jet  us  rejoice  that 
there  are  vast  fields  of  discovery  yet  to  be  explored ;  and  that  light,  the  most 
glorious  and  inspiring  element  in  nature,  invites  us  from  the  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  stars,  and  from  the  face  of  every  green  leaf  and  variegated  flowet, 
to  search  out  the  wonders  of  its  nature,  and  further  to  exemplify  the  goodness 
and  .wisdom  of  God. 

452.  What  is  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth? 
Ninety  five  millions  of  miles. 

453.  At  ivhat  rate  of  velocity  does  light  travel  f 

At  the  rate  of  192,000  miles  in  a  second,  through  our  atmo- 
sphere ;  and  192,500  miles  in  a  second  through  a  vacuum. 

454.  Sow  long  does  light  take  to  travel  from  the  sun  to 
the  earth  ? 

Eight  minutes  and  thirteen  seconds. 

455.  What  is  the  constitution  of  the  sun  ? 

It  is  a  spherical  body,  1,384,472  times  larger  than  the  earth. 

456.  From  what  does  the  luminosity  of  the  sun  arise  f 
From  a  luminous  atmosphere,  or,  as  M.  Arago  named  it,  photo- 
sphere, which  completely  surrounds  the  body  of  the  sun,  and  which 
is  probably  burning  with  great  intensity. 

457.  What  are  the  minor  sources  of  light? 

Light  may  be  produced  by  chemical  action,  by  electricity,  and 
by  phosphor esence,  in  the  latter  of  which  various  agencies  unite. 

458.  What  is  a  ray  of  light  ? 

A  ray  of  light  is  the  smallest  portion  of  light  which  we  can 
recognise. 

459.  What  is  a  medium  ? 

A  medium  is  a  body  which  affords  a  passage  for  the  rays  o£ 
Might. 

460.  What  is  a  learn  of  light  ? 

A  beam  of  light  is  a  group  of  parallel  ravt. 

461.  What  is  a  pencil  of  light? 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  109 


1  And  God  saw  the  light,  that  it  was  good :  and  God  divided  the  light  from  the 
darkness." — GEN.  i. 


A  pencil  of  light  is  a  body  of  rays  which  come  from,  or  move 
towards  a  point. 

462.  What  is  the  radiant  point 'f 

The  radiant  point  is  that  from  which  diverging  rays  of  light 
are  emitted. 

463.  What  is  the  focus? 

The  focus  is  the  point  to  which  converging  rays  are  directed. 

Diverging,  starting  from  a  point,  and  separating.  Converging,  drawing 
together  towards  a  point. 

464.  What  is  the  constitution  of  a  ray  of  light  ? 

A  ray  of  white  light,  -as  we  receive  it  from  the  sun,  is  composed 
of  a  number  of  elementary  rays,  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  triangular 
piece  of  glass,  called  a  prism,  may  be  separated,  and  will  produce 
under  refraction  the  following  colours  : — 

1.  An  extreme  red  ray — a  mixture  of  red  and  blue,  the  red 
predominating. 

2.  Red. 

3.  Orange — red  passing  into  and  combining  with  yellow. 

4.  Yellow — the  most  luminous  of  all  the  rays. 

5.  Green — yellow  passing  into  and  combining  with  the  blue. 

6.  Slue. 

7.  Indigo— a,  dark  and  intense  blue. 

8.  Violet — blue  mingled  with  red. 

9.  Lavender  grey — a  neutral  tint. 

10.  E-ays  called  fluorescent,  which  are  either  of  a  pure  silvery 
blue,  or  a  delicate  green. 

465.  Why  is  a  ray  of  light,  which  contains  these  elementary 
rays,  white  ? 

Because  the  colour  of  light  is  governed  by  the  rapidity  of  the 
vibrations  of  the  ether-waves.  When  a  ray  of  light  is  refracted 
by,  or  transmitted  through  a  body,  its  vibrations  are  frequently 
disturbed  and  altered,  and  thus  a  different  impression  is  made 
upon  the  eye. 

Light  which  gives  37,640  vibrations  in  an  inch,  or 
468,000,000,000,000  in  a  second  of  time,  produces  that  sensation 


110  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


"  The  light  of  the  body  is  the  eye :  if  therefore  thine  eye  be  single,  thy  whole 
body  shall  be  full  of  light."— MATT,  v 


upon  the  eye  which  makes  the  object  that  directs  the  vibrations 
appear  red.  Yellow  light  requires  44,000  vibrations  in  an  inch, 
and  535,000,000,000,000  in  a  second  of  time.  And  the  other 
colours  enumerated  (see  464)  all  require  different  velocities  of 
vibration  to  produce  the  colours  by  which  they  are  distinguished. 

Accepting  the  theory  of  vibrations,  and  applying  it  to  the  elucidation  of  the 
phenomena  of  light— it  is  unnecessary,  we  think,  to  believe  that  a  ray  of  white 
light  contains  rays  in  a  state  of  colour.  It  is  said  that  if  we  divide  a  circular 
surface  into  parts,  and  paint  the  various  colours  in  the  order  and  propor- 
tions in  which  they  occur  in  the  refracted  ray,  and  then  spin  the  circle  with 
great  velocity,  the  colours  will  blend  and  appear  white.  But  such  is  not  the 
case ;  the  result  is  in  some  degree  an  illusion,  arising  out  of  the  sudden  removal 
of  the  impression  made  upon  the  eye  by  the  colours  •,  and  if  a  piece  of  white 
paper  be  held  by  the  side  of  the  coloured  circle  in  motion,  the  latter  will  be 
found  to  be  grey.  "When  it  is  remembered  that  in  colouring  a  white  surface 
with  thin  colours,  the  white  materially  qualifies  the  colours,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  experiment  fails  to  support  the  assertion  that  the  colours  of  the 
spectrum  produce  white.  But  there  can  be  no  difficulty  in  understanding  that 
a  ray  of  light  undergoing  refraction,  becomes  divided  into  minor  rays,  which 
differing  in  their  degrees  of  refrangibility,  vary  also  in  the  velocity  of  tJieir 
vibrations,  and  produce  the  several  sensations  of  colour. 

466.  Tfr  Tiy  is  a  substance  white  ? 

Because  it  reflects  the  light  that  falls  upon  it  without  altering 
its  vibrations. 

467.  Why  is  a  substance  black  ? 

Because  it  absorbs  the  light  and  puts  an  end  to  the  vibrations. 

468.  Why  is  the  rose  red  ? 

Because  it  imparts  to  the  light  that  falls  upon  it  that  change 
in  its  vibratory  condition,  which  produces  on  our  eyes  the 
sensation  of  redness. 

469.  Why  is  the  lily  white  ? 

Because  it  reflects  the  light  without  altering  its  vibrations. 

470.  Whii  is  the  primrose  vellow  ? 

J  JL  «/ 

Because,  though  it  receives  white  light,  it  alters  its  vibrations  to 
44,000  in  an  inch,  and  535,000,000,000,000  in  a  second,  and  this  is 
the  velocity  of  vibration  which  produces  upon  the  eye  a  sensation 
oi  yellow. 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  HI 


"  But  if  thine  eye  be  evil,  thy  whole  body  shall  be  full  of  darkness.    If  therefore 
the  light  that  is  in  thee  be  darkness,  how  great  is  that  darkness."-  MATT.  v. 


471.  Why  are  there  so  many  varieties  of  colour  and  tint  in 
the  various  objects  in  nature  ? 

Because  every  surface  has  a  peculiar  constitution,  or  atomic 
condition,  by  which  the  light  falling  upon  it  is  influenced.  In 
tropical  climates,  where  the  brightness  of  the  sun  is  the  most 
intense,  there  the  colours  of  natural  objects  are  the  richest  j  the 
foliage  is  of  the  darkest  green  ;  the  flowers  and  fruits  present  the 
brightest  hues;  and  the  plumage  of  the  birds  is  of  the  most 
gaudy  description.  In  the  temperate  climates  these  features  are 
more  subdued,  still  bearing  relation  to  the  degree  of  light. 
And  at  a  certain  depth  of  the  ocean,  where  light  penetrates 
only  in  a  slight  degree,  the  objects  that  abound  are  nearly 
colourless. 

•  It  has  been  held  by  many  philosophers  (and  the  theory  is  so  far  conclusive 
that  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with)  that  there  is  an  analogy  between  the  vibra- 
tory causes  of  sound,  and  the  vibratory  causes"  of  colour.  Any  one  who  has  seen 
an  jEolian  harp,  and  listened  to  the  wild  notes  of  its  music,  will  be  aware  that 
the  wires  of  the  harp  are  swept  by  accidental  currents  of  air;  that  when 
those  currents  have  been  strong,  the  notes  of  ths  harp  have  been  raised  to  the 
highest  pitch,  and  as  the  intensity  of  the  currents  has  fallen,  the  musical  sounds 
have  deepened  and  softened,  until,  with  melodious  sighing,  they  have  died 
away.  No  finger  has  touched  the  strings ;  no  musical  genius  has  presided 
at  the  harp  to  wake  its  inspiring  sounds ;  but  the  vibration  imparted  to  the 
air,  as  it  swept  the  wires,  has  alone  produced  the  chromatic  sounds  that  have 
charmed  the  listener.  If,  then,  the  varied  vibrations  of  the  air  are  capable  of 
imparting  dissimilar  sensations  of  sounds  to  the  ear,  is  it  not  only  possible,  but 
probable,  that  the  different  vibrations  of  light  may  impart  the  various  sensa- 
tions of  colours  to  the  eye  ? 


•  '•  ,      '  *  >•  : '  ?.  l  a  i'-i  *i£vfc  t*:)  '  ••  ;">.v.>v.  f  've  Vit/v  v '''"'.  "'  Vi-i    't^i 
CHAPTER  XXIII. 

472.   What  is  the  refraction  of  light  ? 

When  rays  of  light  fall  obliquely  upon  the  surface  of  any 
transparent  medium,  they  are  slightly  diverted  from  their  course. 
This  alteration  of  the  course  of  the  rays  is  called  refraction, 
and  the  degree  of  refraction  is  influenced  by  the  difference 
between  the  densities  of  the  mediums  through  which  light  if 
transmitted. 


112  THE  BEASON  WHY. 


1  Let  your  light  so  shine  before  men,  that  they  may  see  your  good  works,  and 
glorify  your  father  which  is  in  heaven." — MATT.  y. 


473.  If  a  ray  of  light  falls  in  a  straight  line  upon  a  trans- 
parent surface,  is  it  then  refracted  ? 

In  that  case  the  ray  pursues  its  course — there  is  no  refraction. 

474.  Is  the  direction  in  which  the  rays  are  lent,  or  re- 
fracted, influenced  by  the  relative  densities  of  the  media  '( 

A  ray  of  light  falling  slantingly  upon  a  window,  in  passing 
through  it  is  slightly  brought  to  the  perpendicular  ;  and  if  it  then 
falls  upon  the  surfitce  of  water,  it  is  still  further  brought  to  the 
perpendicular  in  passing  through  the  water. 

475.  Is  light  refracted  in  passing  from  a  dense  medium  to 
a  thinner  one  ? 

It  is ;  but  the  direction  of  the  refraction  is  just  the  opposite  to 
the  instance  just  given ;  a  ray  of  light  passing  through  water  into 
air,  does  not  take  a  more  perpendicular  course,  but  becomes  more 
oblique^ 


Fig.  11. 

476.  Why,  if  a  rod  or  a  spoon  be  set  in  an  empty  lasin, 
will  it  appear  straight,  or  of  its  usual  shape  ? 

Because  the  rays  of  light  that  are  reflected  from  it  all  pass  through 
the  same  medium,  the  air. 

477.  Why  if  water  be  poured  into  the  lasin  will  the  rod  ot 
spoon  appear  lent  ? 

Because  the  rays  of  light  that  pass  through  the  water  are 
reflected  in  a  different  degree  to  those  that  pass  through  the 
air. 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  113 


Evening,  and  morning,  and  at  noon,  will  I  pray,  and  cry  aloud ;  and  he  shall 
hear  my  voice."— PSALM  IT. 


Place  in  the  bottom  of  an  empty  basin  (Fig.  11.)  a  shilling ;  then  stand  in 
such  a  position  at  the  point  B  that  the  line  of  sight,  over  the  edge  of  the  basin, 
just  excludes  the  shilling  from  view.  Then  request  some  one  to  pour  water 
into  the  basin,  until  it  is  filled  to  C  (Fig.  12.),  keeping  your  eye  fixed  upon  the 
spot.  The  shilling  will  gradually  appear,  and  will  soon  come  entirely  in  view. 
Not  only  will  the  shilling  be  brought  in  view,  but  also  portions  of  the 
basin  before  concealed.  This  is  owing  to  the  rays  of  light  passing  from  the 
bottom  through  the  water  in  a  direction  wore  perpendicular  than  they  would 
have  done  through  the  air ;  but  on  leaving  the  water  they  become  more 
oblique,  and  hence  they  convey  the  image  of  the  shilling  over  tlie  edge  of  the 
basin,  which  otherwise  would  have  obstructed  the  view. 


Fig.  12. 

478.  Why  is  it  that  in  cloudy  and  showery  days  we  see  the 
sun's  rays  bursting  through  the  clouds  in  different  directions  ? 

Because,  in  passing  through  clouds  of  different  densities  the  rays 
ure  bent  out  of  their  course. 

479.  Why  is  the  apparent  depth  of  water  always  decep- 
tive ? 

Because  the  light  reflected  from  the  objects  at  the  bottom  is 
refracted  as  it  leaves  the  water. 

480.  How  much  deeper  is  water  than  it  appears  to  le  ? 

About  one-third.  A  person  bathing,  and  being  unable  to  swim, 
should  calculate  before  jumping  into  the  water,  that  if  it  looks  two 
feet  deep,  it  is  quite  three  feet. 

481.  Why    can     we  seldom    at  the   first    attempt  touch 
anything  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  with  a  stick? 

Because  we  do  not  allow  for  the  different  refractive  powers  of 
water  and  of  air 


114  THE  BEASON   WHY. 


"  I  do  set  my  bow  in  the  cloud,  and  it  shall  be  for  a  token  of  a  covenant  between 
me  and  the  earth." 


482.  Wliy  do  we  see  the  sun  before  sun-rise,  and  after 
sun-set  ? 

Because  of  the  refractive  effects  of  the  atmosphere.  Rays  of 
light,  passing  obliquely  from  the  sun  through  the  air  to  the  earth, 
are  refracted  three  or  four  times  by  the  varying  density  of  the 
medium.  Each  refraction  bends  the  rays  towards  the  perpendicular  ; 
and  hence  we  see  the  sun  before  it  rises  and  after  it  sets, 


Pig.  13.— DIAGRAM   EXHIBITING    THE    REFRACTION   OP    THE    SUIT'S   RATS    IN 
PASSING  THROUGH  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

483.  Why  do  figures,  viewed  through  the  hot  air  proceeding 
from  furnaces,  and  from  lime-kilns,   appear  distorted  and 
tremulous  ? 

Because  the  ever  varying  density  of  the  air  which  is  flying  away 
in  hot  currents,  and  succeeded  by  cold,  constantly  changes  the 
refractive  power  of  the  medium  through  which  the  figures  are 
viewed. 

484.  Why  do  the  stars  twinkle  ? 

Because  their  light  reaches  us  through  variously  heated  and 
moving  currents  of  air.  In  this  case  the  earth  is  the  kiln,  and 
the  stars  the  object  that  is  viewed  through  the  refractive  medium. 

485.  Why  does  much  twinkling  of  the  stars  foretell  bad 
weather  ? 

Because  it  denotes  that  there  are  various  aerial  currents  of 
different  temperatures  and  densities,  producing  atmosph&rio 
disturbance. 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  116 


'And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  when  I  bring  a  cloud  over  the  earth,  that  the  bow 
shall  be  seen  in  the  cloud."— GENESIS  ix. 


486.  What  causes  the  rainbow  ? 

The  refraction  of  the  sun's  rays  by  the  falling  rain. 

487.  Why  does  the  rainbow  exhibit  various  colours  ? 

The  colours  belong  to  the  elementary  rays  of  light ;  and  these 
rays  having  different  degrees  of  refrangibility,  some  of  them  are 
bent  more  than  others ;  they  are  therefore  separated  into  distinct 
rays  of  different  colours. 

488.  Why  are  there  sometimes  two  rainbows  ? 

Because  the  rays  of  refracted  light,  reflected  upon  other  drops 
of  rain,  are  again  refracted,  and  then  reflected,  again,  forming  a 
secondary  bow. 

489.  Why  are  the  colours  of  the  secondary  low  arrayed  in 
the  reverse  order  of  the  primary  bow  ? 

Because  the  secondary  bow  is  a  reflection  of  the  primary  bow, 
and,  like  all  reflections,  is  reversed. 

490.  Why  are  reflections  reversed  ? 

Because  those  rays  which  first  reach  the  reflecting  surface  are 
the  first  returned.  If  you  hold  your  open  hand  towards  the 
looking-glass,  the  light  passing  from  the  point  of  your  finger  will 
reach  the  reflector  and  be  returned  before  the  rays  that  pass  from 
the  back  parts  of  the  hand.  Hence  the  image  of  the  hand  will 
present  the  reflection  of  the  finger  point  towards  the  point  of  the 
finger. 

491.  Why    are  the  colours  of   the    secondary    rainbow 
fainter  than  those  of  the  primary  ? 

Because  they  are  derived  from  the  refraction  and  reflection 
of  rays  which  have  already  been  refracted  and  reflected,  and 
thereby  their  intensity  has  been  diminished. 

492.  What  is  a  lunar  rainbow  ? 

A  lunar  rainbow  is  caused  by  the  light  of  the  moon,  in  the 
same  manner  as  tha  solar  rainbow  is  caused  by  the  light  of  the 
sun. 


116  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


"  I  am  come  a  light  into  the  world,  that  whosoever  believeth  in  me  should  not 
abide  in  darkness." — JOHN  xui. 


493.  Why  is  the  lunar    rainbow  fainter   than    a  solar 
rainbow  ? 

Because  the  light  of  the  moon  is  the  reflected  light  oj  the  sun, 
and  is  therefore  less  intense. 

494.  What  is  a  halo  ? 

A  halo  is  a  luminous  ring,  which  forms  between  the  eye  of  the 
observer  and  a  luminous  body. 

Haloes  may  appear  around  the  disc  of  the  sun,  moon,  or  stars. 
But  in  this  country  the  lunar  haloes  are  the  most  remarkable  and 
frequent. 

495.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  luminous  ring  ? 

The  refraction  of  light  as  it  passes  through  an  intervening  cloud, 
or  a  stratum  of  moist  and  cold  air. 

496.  Why  are  haloes  -sometimes  large  and  at  other  times 
small  ? 

Because  they  are  sometimes  formed  very  high  in  the  atmosphere, 
at  other  times  very  low.  Being  high,  and  farther  removed  from  the 
spectator,  and  nearer  the  source  of  light,  they  appear  smaller ; 
while  the  nearer  they  are,  the  larger  they  appear. 

497.  Why  do  haloes  foretell  wet  weather  ? 

Because  they  show  that  there  is  a  great  amount  of  atmospheric 
moisture,  which  will  probably  form  rain. 

498.  Why    do    glass     lustres    and    chandeliers    exhibit* 
"  rainbow  colours"  ? 

Because  they  refract  the  rays  of  light  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  rain  drops. 

499.  Why  does  a  soap  bubble  show  the  prismatic  colours  ? 
Because,  like  a  large  rain  drop,  it  refracts  the  rays  of  light,  and 

shows  the  elementary  rays. 

500.  What  causes  the  rich  tints  displayed  by  "  mother-of- 
pearl?" 

The  refraction,  of  the  light  that  falls  upon  the  surface  of  the 
pearL 


THE   EEASON    W11Y.  117 


1  Light  is  sown  for  the  righteous,  and  gladness  for  the  upright  in  heart."— 

XCVII. 


501.   What  causes  the  brilliant  colours  of  the  diamond  ? 

The  refraction  of  the  rays  of  light  by  the  various  facets  of  the 
diamond. 

The  refraction  of  light,  and  the  production  of  prismatic  colours,  surrounds  us 
with  most  interesting  phenomena.  The  laundress,  whose  active  labours  raise 
over  the  wash-tub  a  soapy  froth,  performs  inadvertently  one  of  the  most  delicate 
operations  of  chemistry — the  chemistry  of  the  imponderable  agents — and  the 
result  of  her  manipulations  manifests  itself  in  the  delicate  colours  that  dance 
like  a  fairy  light  over  the  glassy  films  that  follow  the  motion  of  her  arms.  The 
laughing  child,  throwing  a  bubble  from  the  bowl  of  a  tobacco  pipe  into  the  air, 
performs  the  same  experiment,  and  produces  a  result  such  as  that  which  filled 
the  philosophic  Newton  with  unbounded  joy.  The  foam  of  the  sea  shore,  the 
plumage  of  birds,  the  various  films  that  float  upon  the  surface  of  waters,  the 
delicate  tints  of  flowers,  and  the  rich  hues  of  luscious  fruits,  all  combine  to 
remind  us,  that  every  ray  of  light  comes  like  an  angelic  artist  sent  from  heaven, 
bearing  upon  his  palette  the  most  celestial  tints,  with  which  to  beautify  the 
earth,  and  show  the  illimitable  glory  of  God. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

502.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  refraction  and 
the  reflection  of  light  ? 

Refraction  is  the  deviation  of  rays  of  light  from  their  course 
through  the  interference  of  a  different  medium ;  reflection  is  the 
return  of  rays  of  light  which,  having  fallen  upon  a  surface,  are 
repelled  by  it. 

503.  What  is  the  radiation  of  light  ? 

The  radiation  of  light  is  its  emission  in  rays  from  the  surface  of 
a  luminous  body. 

504.  Do  jail  bodies  radiate  light  ? 

All  bodies  radiate  light ;  but  those  that  are  not  in  themselves 
primary  sources  of  light,  are  said  to  reflect  it. 

505.  Do  black  bodies  reflect  any  light  ? 

Black  bodies  absorb  the  light  that  falls  upon  them.  But  they 
reflect  a  very  small  degree  of  light. 

506     TP  hy  is  glass  transparent  ? 


118  THE  SEASON  WHY. 


'As  in  water  face  answereth  to  face,  so  the  heart  of  man  to  man." — 
PEOVESBS  xxvn. 


Because  its  atoms  are  so  arranged  that  they  .allow  the  vibrations 
of  light  to  continue  through  their  substance. 

507.  Does  glass  obstruct  the  passage  of  any  portion  of 
light  / 

Glass  reflects  (sends  back)  a  very  small  portion  of  light.  This 
may  be  observed  by  holding  a  piece  of  paper,  or  a  hand,  a  few  inches 
from  a  window,  when  a  faint  reflection  of  it  will  be  visible. 
Probably  the  small  amount  of  light  reflected  by  transparent  glass, 
which  gives  a  passage  to  the  greater  part  of  the  rays,  may  serve 
to  illustrate  the  small  amount  of  light  reflected  from  black  surfaces, 
which  absorbs  the  greater  portion  of  light. 

Instead  of  a  piece  of  white  paper,  hold  a  piece  of  black  cloth  two  or  three 
inches  from  the  window-pane,  and  you  will  have  two  reflections  so  weak  that  the 
image  of  the  cloth  will  be  almost  lost.  The  first  reflection  is  that  of  the  very 
small  amount  of  light  from  the  black  surface  on  to  the  glass,  and  the  second 
reflection  is  that  of  the  inconceivably  small  amount  returned  by  the  glass,  and 
by  which  the  faint  image  of  the  black  cloth  is  produced.  But  put  the  black 
cloth  outside  of  the  window-pane,  and  then  hold  an  object  before  them, 
and  you  will  find  that  the  two  weak  reflectors,  acting  together,  produce  an 
improved  image,  or  reflection. 

508.  Why,  if  a  book  is  held  between  a  candle-light  and  the 
wall,  does  a  shadow  fall  upon  the  wall  ? 

Because  the  rays  of  light  are  intercepted  by  the  book. 

509.  Why  do  the  rays  pass  over  the  edges  of  the  book  in 
a  direct  line  with  the  flame  of  the  candle? 

Because  light  always  travels  in  straight  lines. 

510.  Why    is  there  some  amount  of  light    even  where 
shadows  fall? 

Because,  as  all  objects  reflect  light,  some  of  them  throw  their 
light  into  the  field  of  the  shadow. 

511.  Why  are  some  substances  opaque  to  light  ? 

Because  the  arrangement  of  their  particles  will  not  admit  of  the 
vibrations  of  the  luminous  ether  passing  through  them. 
Opaque— impervious  to  rays  of  light. 

512.  Why  do  we  see  our  faces  reflected  in  mirrors? 


THE   SEASON  WHY.  110 


"  The  day  is  thine,  the  night  also  is  thine :  thou  hast  prepared  the  light  and 
the  sun."— PSALM  LXXIV. 


Because  the  rays  of  light  from  our  faces  are  reflected  by  the 
surface  of  the  quicksilver  at  the  back  of  the  glass. 

513.  Why  does  the  quicksilver  reflect  the  rays  of  light  ? 

Because,  being  densely  opaque  to  light,  and  presenting  also  a 
bright  surface,  it  is  a  good  reflector,  and  it  throws  back  the  whole 
of  the  rays. 

514.  What  has  the  glass  to  do  with  the  rejection  ? 

The  glass  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  reflection,  except  that  it 
affords  a  field  upon  which  the  reflecting  surface  of  the  quicksilver  is 
spread ;  and  it  keeps  the  air  and  dirt  from  dulling  the  quicksilver. 

The  parts  of  a  mirror  from  which  the  quicksilver  is  rubbed  away  give  no 
reflection  that  could  assist  the  reflecting  power  of  the  quicksilver.  That  the 
surface  of  the  glass  does  not  reflect  the  image,  is  shown  by  the  fact,  that  if  you 
put  the  point  of  any  object  against  the  glass,  the  thickness  between  the  point 
and  the  place  where  the  reflection  of  it  begins,  will  show  the  exact  thickness  of 
the  glass. 

515.  Why  does  a  compound  mirror  (a  multiplying  mirror) 
exhibit  a  large  number  of  images  of  one  object. 

Because  all  objects  reflect  rays  of  light  in  every  direction,  and 
therefore  the  different  mirrors,  being  at  various  angles,  receive  each 
a  reflection  of  the  same  object. 

516.  Why  does  a  window-pane  appear  to  be  a  better  reflec- 
tor- by  candle-light  than  by  day -light  ? 

The  reflecting  power  of  glass  is  precisely  the  same  by  night  as  by 
day,  and  is  always  very  feeble.  But  it  appears  to  be  greater  by 
night,  because  the  surrounding  darkness  increases  the  apparent 
strength  of  the  reflection. 

517.  How  do  we  know  that  objects  reflect  light  in  every 
direction? 

Because  if  we  prick  a  hole  in  a  card  with  a  pin,  and  then  look 
through  that  small  hole  upon  a  landscape,  we  can  see  some  miles 
of  country,  and  some  thousands  of  objects ;  every  part  of  every 
object  throughout  the  whole  scene,  must  have  sent  rays  of  light  to 
the  small  hole  pricked  in  the  card. 


120  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


"  Such  knowledge  is  too  wonderful  for  me ;  it  is  high,  I  cannot  attain  unto  it."— 
PSALM  cxxxix. 


At  one  extremity  of  the  landscape,  viewed  through  the  hole  in  the  card,  there 
may  be  a  forest  of  trees ;  in  the  distance  there  may  be  hills  bathed  in  golden 
light,  and  overhung  with  glittering  clouds ;  in  the  mid-distance  there  may  be 
a  river  winding  its  course  along,  as  though  it  loved  the  earth  through  which  it 
ran,  and  wished,  by  wandering  to  and  fro,  to  refresh  the  thirsty  soil ;  in  the 
foreground  may  be  a  church,  covered  by  a  million  ivy  leaves ;  and  grouping 
towards  the  sacred  edifice  may  be  hundreds  of  intending  worshippers,  old  and 
young,  rich  and  poor ;  flowers  may  adorn  the  path- ways,  and  butterflies  spangle 
the  air  with  their  beauties :  yet  every  one  of  those  objects — the  fores^the  hills, 
the  clouds,  the  river,  the  church,  the  ivy,  the  people,  the  flowers,  the  butterflies- 
must  have  sent  rays  of  light,  which  found  their  way  through  the  little  hole  in 
the  card,  and  entered  to  paint  the  picture  upon  the  curtain  of  the  eye. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  that  can  be  afforded  of  the  wonderful 
properties  of  light,  and  of  the  infinitude  of  those  luminous  rays  that  attend 
the  majestic  rising  of  the  sun.  Not  only  does  light  fly  from  the  grand  "  ruler  of 
the  day"  with  a  velocity  which  is  a  million  and  a  half  times  greater  than  the 
speed  of  a  cannon-ball,  but  it  darts  from  every  reflecting  surface  with  a  like 
velocity,  and  reaches  the  tender  structure  of  the  eye  so  gently  that,  as  it  falls 
upon  the  little  curtain  of  nerves  which  is  there  spread  to  receive  it,  it  imparts 
the  most  pleasing  sensations,  and  tells  its  story  of  the  outer  world  with  a 
minuteness  of  detail,  and  a  holiness  of  truth.  Philosophers  once  sought  to  weigh 
the  sunbeam ;  they  constructed  a  most  delicate  balance,  and  suddenly  let  in 
upon  it  a  beam  of  light ;  the  lever  of  the  balance  was  so  delicately  hung  that  the 
fluttering  of  a  fly  would  have  disturbed  it.  Everything  prepared,  the  grave 
men  took  thi.ir  places,  and  with  keen  eyes  watched  the  result.  The  sunbeam 
that  was  to  decide  the  experiment  had  left  the  sun  eight  minutes  prior  to  pass 
the  ordeal.  It  had  flown  through  ninety-five  millions  of  miles  of  space  in  that 
short  measure  of  time,  and  it  shot  upon  the  balance  with  unabated  velocity : 
but  the  lever  moved  not,  and  the  philosophers  were  mute. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

518.  Why,  when  we  move  before  a  mirror,  does  the  image 
draw  near  to  the  reflecting  surface  as  we  draw  near  to  it,  and 
retire  when  we  retire  ? 

Because  the  lines  and  angles  of  reflection  are  always  equal  to  the 
lines  and  angles  of  incidence. 

519.  What  is  the  line  of  incidence  ? 

If  a  person  stands  in  a  direct  line  before  a  mirror,  the  line 
through  which  the  light  travels  from  him  to  the  mirror  is  the  line 
of  incidence. 

Incidence— falling  on. 


THE   BEASON   WHY. 


121 


'Blessed  be  the  Lord,  who  daily  loadeth  us  with  benefits,  even  the  God  of  our 
salvation."— PSALM  LXVIII. 


520.  What  is  the  line  of  reflection  ? 

The  line  of  reflection  is  the  line  in  which  the  rays  of  light  are 
returned  from  the  image  formed  in  the  glass  to  the  eye  of  the 
observer. 

Reflection— &  turning  back. 

521.  What  is  the  angle  of  incidence? 

The  angle  of  incidence  is  the  angle  which  rays  of  light,  falling  on 
a  reflecting  surface,  make  with  a  line  perpendicular  to  that  surface. 


.Reflecting  Surface. 


Fig.  14.— EXPLAINING  THE  LINES  AND  ANGLES  OF  INCIDENCE  AKD 

OP  KEFLECTION. 

522.   What  is  the  angle  of  reflection  ? 

The  angle  of  reflection  is  the  angle  which  is  formed  by  the 
returning  rays  of  light,  and  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  reflecting 
surface.  It  is  always  equivalent  to  the  angle  of  incidence. 

Take  a  marble  and  roll  it  across  the  floor,  so  that  it  shall  strike  the  wainscot 
obliquely.  Let  A  in  the  diagram  represent  the  point  from  which  the  marble  is 
sent.  The  marble  will  not  return  to  the  hand,  nor  will  it  travel  to  the  line  B, 
but  will  bound  off,  or  be  reflected,  GO  C.  Now  B  is  an  imaginary  line,  perpen- 
dicular to  the  reflecting  surface;  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  path  described 
by  the  marble  in  rolling  to  the  surface  and  rebounding  from  it,  form,  with  the 
li  ne  B,  two  angles  that  are  equal.  These  represent  the  angles  of  incidence  and 
of  reflection,  and  explain  why  the  reflection  of  a  person  standing  at  A  before  a 
mirror,  would  be  seen  by  another  person  standing  at  C.  This  simple  law  iu 
optics  explains  a  great  many  interesting  phenomena,  and  therefore  it  should  be 
clearly  impressed  upon  the  memory. 

6 


122  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


'And  God  made  two  great  lights ;  the  greater  light  to  rule  the  day,  and  the 
lesser  light  to  rule  the  night :  he  made  the  stars  also." — GEN.  i. 


523.  Why  do  windows  reflect  the  sun  in  the  evening  ? 
Because  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  in  the  line  of  the  reflection. 

524.  Why  do  windows  not  reflect  the  sun  at  noon  ? 
They  do,  but  our  eyes  are  not  then  in  the  line  of  the  reflection. 


Window, 


#  Position  of  Sun  at 
evening. 


Line  of  Reflection 
at  evening. 


Line  of  Reflection 
at  noon. 

l1jr  15— SHOWING  THE  LINES  O*  INCIDENCE  AND  EEFLECTIOK  OF  THE  SUN'S 
KAYS  AT  NOON  AND  AT  EVENING. 

It  is  obvious  from  the  foregoing  diagram  that  the  evening  rays  of  reflection 
fall  upon  the  eyes  of  spectators,  while  the  reflections  at  noon  are  so 
perpendicular  that  they  are  lost. 

525.  Why  do  the  sun  and  moon  appear  smaller  when  near 
the  meridian,  than  ivhen  near  the  horizon  ? 

Because,  when  near  the  horizon,  they  are  brought  intd 
comparison  with  the  sizes  of  terrestrial  objects  ;  but  when  neal 
the  meridian  they  occupy  the  centre  of  a  vast  field  of  sky,  and  as 
there  are  no  objects  of  comparison  surrounding  them,  they  appear 
smaller. 

This  is  one  "Reason  "Why,"  assigned  by  some  observers.  But  there  is  also 
another  reason  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that,  when  the  sun  or  moon  is  near  the 
horizon,  we  view  it  through  a  greater  depth  of  atmosphere  than  we  do  when  at 


THE    KEASON    WHY. 


123 


1  There  is  no  darkness  nor  shadow  of  death,  where  the  workers  of  iniquity  may 
hide  themselves." — JOB  xxxiv. 


the  meridian.  (See  Fig.  13.)  A  straight  line  passed  upward  through  the  air, 
would  not  be  so  long  as  that  which  passes  to  S.  Consequently,  as  the  air  is 
generally  impregnated  with  moisture,  at  the  time  when  these  effects  are 
observed,  the  rays  of  light  are  caused  to  diverge  more,  and  the  disc  of  the  sun  or 
moon  appears  magnified.  Probably  both  of  these  reasons  contribute  to  the  effect. 
This  latter  reason  also  explains  why  the  disc  of  the  sun  or  moon  may  some- 
times appear  oval  in  shape,  the  lower  stratum  of  air  being  more  loaded  with 
moisture  than  that  through  which  we  view  the  upper  part  of  the  disc. 

526.  Why  do  our  shadows  lengthen  as  the  sun  goes  down  ? 
Because  light  travels  only  in  straight  lines,  and  as  the  sun 

descends,  the  direction  of  his  rays  becomes  more  oblique,  thereby 
causing  longer  shadows. 

527.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  optical  illusions  frequently 
observed  in  nature  ? 

There  are  various  kinds  of  natural  optical  illusions  : — 

The  mirage,  in  which  landscapes  are  seen  reflected  in  buniiiig1 
sands. 

The  fata  morgana,  in  which  two  or  three  reflections  of  objects 
occur  at  the  same  time. 

The  aerial  spectra,  or  aerial  reflections,  &c. 


Fig.  16.— ILI/TSTRATINCt  THE  APPEARANCE  OF  PHANTOM  SHIPS. 

The  optical  illusions  itbc.ve  cr.umoratcd  owe  their  origin  to  various 


124  THE   BEASON   WHY. 


"  In  the  morning  ye  say,  it  will  be  foul  weather  to-day,  for  the  sky  is  red  and 
lowering."— MATT.  xvi. 


atmospheric  conditions,  in  which  refractions  and  reflections  are  mul- 
tiplied by  the  different  densities  of  atmospheric  layers.  They  chiefly 
occur  in  hot  countries,  where,  from  the  varying  effects  of  heat,  the 
conditions  of  atmospheric  refraction  and  reflection  frequently  prevail 
in  their  highest  degree. 

528.  Why  do  we  have  twilight  mornings  and  evenings  ? 

Because  the  coming  and  the  departing  rays  of  the  sun  are 
refracted  and  reflected  by  the  upper  portions  of  the  atmosphere. 
(See  Fig.  13.) 

529.  How  long  before  the  sun  appears  above  the  horizon 
does  the  reflection  of  his  light  reach  us? 

The  time  varies  with  the  refracting  and  reflecting  power  of  the 
atmosphere,  from  twenty  minutes  to  sixty  minutes.  But  the  sun's 
position  is  usually  eighteen  degrees  below  the  horizon  when  twilight 
begins  or  ends. 

530.  Why  is  the  sky  Hue  ? 

The  white  light  of  the  sun  falls  upon  the  earth  without  change ; 
it  is  then  reflected  back  by  the  earth,  and  as  it  passes  through  the 
atmosphere  portions  of  it  are  again  returned  to  us,  and  this  double 
reflection  produces  a  polarised  condition  of  light  which  imparts  to 
vision  the  sensation  of  a  delicate  blue.  (See  549.) 

531.  Why  do  the  clouds  appear  white  ? 

Because  they  reflect  back  to  us  the  solar  beam  unchanged. 

532.  Why  does  the  slcy  appear  red  at  sunset  ? 

Because  the  light  vapours  of  the  air,  which  are  condensed  as  the 
sun  sets,  refract  the  rays  of  light,  and  produce  red  rays.  The 
refraction  which  produces  red  requires  only  a  moderate  degree  of 
density. 

533.  Why  do  the  clouds  sometimes  appear  yellow  ? 

Because  there  is  a  larger  amount  of  vapour  in  the  air,  which 
produces  a  different  degree  of  refraction,  resulting  in  yellow. 

534.  Why  does  a  yellow  sunset  foretell  wet  weather  ? 


THE   SEASON    WHY.  125 


'  When  it  is  evening  ye  say  it  will  be  fair  weather,  for  the  sky  is  red." — 
MATT.  xvi. 


Because  it  shows  that  the  air  is  heavy  with  vapours.  The 
refraction  that  produces  yellow  requires  a  greater  degree  of  density. 

535.  Why  does  a  red  sunset  foretell  fine  weather  ? 

Because  the  redness  shows  that  the  vapours  in  the  air  towards 
the  West,  or  wet  quarter,  are  light,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  degree  of 
refraction  of  the  sun's  rays. 

536.  Why  does  a  red  sunrise  foretell  wet  ? 

Because  it  shows  that  towards  the  East,  or  dry  quarter,  the  air 
is  charged  with  vapour,  and  therefore  probably  at  other  points  the 
air  has  reached  saturation. 

537.  Why  does  a  grey  sunrise  foretell  a  dry  day  ? 
Because  it  shows  that  the  vapours  in  the  air  are  not  very  dense. 

538.  Why  is  "  a  rainbow  in  the  morning  the  shepherd's 
warning?" 

Because  it  shows  that  in  the  West,  or  wet  quarter,  the  air  is 
saturated  to  the  rain  point. 

539.  Why  is  "  a  rainbow  at  night  the  shepherd's  delight  ?" 
Because  it  shows  that  the  rain  is  falling  in  the  East,  and  as  that 

is  a  dry  quarter,  it  will  soon  be  over.    Eainbows  are  always  seen 
in  opposition  to  the  sun. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

540.   Wliat  is  the  difference  between  light  and  heat  ? 

The  most  obvious  distinction  is,  that  light  acts  upon  vision,  and 
heat  upon  sensation,  or  feeling. 

Another  distinction  is,  that  heat  expands  all  bodies,&nd.  alters  their 
atomic  condition;  while  light,  though  usually  attended  by  heat, 
does  not  display  the  same  expansive  force,  but  produces  various 
effects  which  are  peculiar  to  itself. 


126  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


:  Ye  are  the  light  of  the  world.   A  city  that  is  set  on  a  hill  cannot  be  hid."— 
MATTHEW  v. 


541.  Are  light  and  heat  combined  in  the  solar  ray  ? 

Yes.  A  ray  of  light,  as  well  as  containing  elementary  rays  that 
produce  colours  under  refraction,  contains  also  chemical  rays,  and 
heat  rays. 

542.  How  do  we  know  that  light  and  heat  are  separate 
elements  ? 

Because  we  have  heat  rays,  as  from  dark  hot  iron,  from  various 
chemical  actions,  and  from  friction,  which  are  unattended  by  the 
development  of  light.  And  we  have  light,  or  luminosity,  such  as 
that  of  phosphor 'esence,  which  is  unaccompanied  by  any  appreciable 
degree  of  heat. 

But,  besides  this  confirmation,  further  proof  is  afforded  by  the 
fact,  that  in  passing  rays  of  solar  light  through  media  that  are 
transparent  to  heat,  but  not  to  light,  the  heat  rays  may  be 
separated  from  the  luminous  rays,  and  vice  versa. 

Black  glass,  and  black  mica,  which  are  nearly  opaque  to  light,  are 
transparent  to  heat  to  the  extent  of  ninety  degrees  out  of  a  hundred.  While 
pale  green  glass,  coloured  by  oxide  of  copper,  and  covered  with  a  coating  of 
water,  or  a  thin  coating  of  alum,  will  be  perfectly  transparent  to  light,  but  will 
be  almost  quite  opaque  to  heat.  These  remarks  apply,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  to  various  other  substances. 

543.  In  what  respects  are  light  and  heat  similar? 

Both  heat  and  light  have  been  referred  to  minute  vibratory 
motions  which  occur,  under  exciting  causes,  in  a  very  subtile  elastic 
medium. 

They  are  both  united  in  the  sun's  rays. 

They  are  both  subject  to  laws  of  absorption,  radiation,  reflection, 
and  refraction. 

They  are  both  essential  to  life,  whether  animal  or  vegetable. 

Both  may  be  developed  in  their  greatest  intensity  by 
electricity. 

They  are  both  imponderable. 

544.  In  what  respects  are  light  and  heat  dissimilar  f 

Heat  frequently  exists  without  light. 
Light  is  usually  attended  with  heat. 
Light  may  be  instantly  extinguished,  but 


THE    KEASON    WHY.  127 


When  I  consider  thy  heavens,  the  work  of  thy  fingers,  the  moon  and  the  stars 
which  thou  hast  ordained : 


Heat  can  only  be  more  gradually  reduced,  by  diffusion. 

The  solar  rays  deliver  heat  to  the  earth  by  day,  and  the  heat 
remains  with  the  earth  when  the  light  has  departed. 

Heat  diffuses  itself  in  all  directions. 

Light  travels  only  in  straight  lines. 

The  colours  that  absorb  and  radiate  both  light  and  heat  do  not  act 
in  the  same  degree  upon  them  both.  Black,  which  does  not  radiate 
light,  is  a  good  radiator  of  heat,  &c.,  &c. 

The  oxy -hydrogen  light  emits  a  most  intense  heat,  but  glass 
which  will  transmit  the  rays  of  light,  will  afford  no  passage  to  the 
rays  of  the  heat. 

Heat  is  latent  in  all  bodies,  but  no  satisfactory  proof  has  been 
found  that  light  is  latent  in  substances. 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  analogies  and  distinctions  that  exist 
between  the  two  mysterious  agents,  light  and  heat.  But  they  are 
sufficient  to  supply  the  starting  points  of  investigation. 

The  importance  of  the  heat  that  attends  the  solar  rays  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  experiments  performed  a  few  years  ago,  by  Mr.  Baker,  of  Fleet-street, 
London,  who  made  a  large  burning  lens,  three  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and 
employed  another  lens  to  reduce  the  rays  of  the  first  to  a  focus  of  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  heat  produced  was  so  great  that  iron  plates,  gold,  and  stones  were 
instantly  melted ;  and  sulphur,  pitch,  and  resinous  bodies,  were  melted  under 
water. 

545.  What  is  the  point  of  heat  at  which  bodies  become 
luminous  ? 

The  point  of  heat  at  which  the  eye  begins  to  discover  luminosity 
has  been  estimated  at  1,000  deg. 

546.  What  is  the  velocity  of  artificial  liglit  ? 

The  light  of  a  fire,  or  of  a  candle,  or  gas,  travels  with  the  same 
velocity  as  the  light  of  the  sun, — a  velocity  which  would  convey 
light  eight  times  round  the  world  while  a  person  could  count  "  one." 

547.  A.t  ivhat  rate  of  velocity  does  the  liglit  of  the  stars 
travel ? 

At  the  same  velocity  as  all  other  light.  And  yet  there  are  stars 
so  distant  that,  although  the  light  of  the  sun  reaches  the  earth  in 
eight  minutes  and  a  half,  it  requires  hundreds  of  years  to  bring 
their  light  to  us. 


128  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


What  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him  ?  and  the  son  of  man  that  thou 
visitest  him  ?" — PSALM  viu. 


548.  What  is   the    relative    intensity   of    primary    and 
reflected  light  ? 

The  intensity  of  a  reflection  depends  upon  the  power  of  the 
reflecting  surface.  But,  taking  the  sun  and  moon  as  the  great 
examples  of  primary  and  reflected  light,  the  intensity  of  the  sun's 
light  is  801,072  times  greater  than  that  of  the  moon. 

549.  What  is  polarized  light  ? 

Polarized  light  is  light  which  has  been  subjected  to  compound 
refraction,  and  which,  after  polarization,  exhibits  a  new  series  of 
phenomena,  differing  materially  from  those  that  pertain  to  the 
primary  conditijns  of  light. 

550.  What  are  the  chief  deductions  from  the  phenomena 
observed  under  the  polarization  of  light  ? 

The  polarization  of  light  appears  to  confirm  in  a  high  degree  the 
vibratory  theory  of  light ;  and  to  show  that  the  vibrations  of  light 
have  two  planes  or  directions  of  motion.  The  mast  of  a  ship,  for 
instance,  has  two  motions :  it  progresses  vertically  as  the  ship  is 
impeded  forward,  and  it  rolls  laterally  through  the  motion  of  the 
billows. 

Something  like  this  occurs  in  the  vibrations  of  light,  only  the 
vertical  vibration  is  the  condition  of  one  ray,  and  the  lateral 
vibration  is  the  condition  of  another  ray,  and  the  vibrations  of  these 
two  rays  intersect  each  other  in  the  solar  ray.  When  these 
vibrations  occur  together,  the  ray  has  certain  properties  and 
powers.  But  by  polarization  the  rays  may  be  separated,  and  the 
result  is  two  distinct  rays,  having  different  vibrations. 

It  then  appears  that  various  bodies  are  transparent  to  these 
polarized  rays  only  in  certain  directions.  And  this  fact  is 
supposed  to  show  that  bodies  are  made  up  of  their  atoms  arranged 
in  certain  planes,  through  or  between  which  the  lateral  or  the 
vertical  waves  of  light,  together  or  singly,  can  or  cannot  pass ;  and 
that  the  transparency  or  the  opacity  of  a  body  is  determined  by  the 
relation  of  its  atomic  planes  to  the  planes  of  the  vibrations  of 
light. 

Ordinary  light,  passing  through  transparent  media,  produces  no 
very  remarkable  effect  in  its  course  j  but  polarized  light  appears  to 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  129 

"A  man  that  is  called  Jesus  made  clay,  and  anointed  mine  eyes,  and  said  unto 

me,  Go  to  the  pool  of  Siloam,  and  wash :  and  I  went  and  washed, 

and  I  received  sight." — JOHN  ix. 

illuminate  every  atom  of  the  permeated  substance,  and  by  surround- 
ing it  with  a  prismatic  clothing,  to  afford  an  illustration  of  its 
molecular  arrangement. 

551.  Why  are  two  persons  able  to  see  each  other  ? 
Because  rays  of  light  flow  from  their  bodies  to  each  other's  eyes, 

and  convey  an  impression  of  their  respective  conditions. 

In  some  popular  works  that  have  come  under  our  notice,  we  find  that  the 
student  is  told  that  "we  cannot  absolutely  see  each  other — we  only  see  the  rays 
of  light  reflected  from  each  other"  The  statement  is  erroneous  as  expressed. 
We  do  riot  see  the  rays  of  light,  for  if  we  did  so,  the  effect  of  vision  would  be 
destroyed,  and  all  bodies  would  appear  to  be  in  a  state  of  incandesence,  or  of 
phosphoresence.  Rays  of  light,  which  are  in  themselves  in-visible,  radiate  from 
the  objects  we  look  upon,  enter  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  and  impress  the  seat  of 
vision  in  a  manner  which  conveys  to  the  mind  a  knowledge  of  the  form,  colour, 
and  relative  size  and  position  of  the  figure  we  look  upon.  If  this  is  not  seeing 
the  object— what  is?  It  would  be  just  as  reasonable  to  say,  that  we  cannot 
hear  a  person  speak — that  we  only  hear  the  vibrations  of  the  air.  But  as  the 
vibrations  are  imparted  to  the  air  by  the  organs  of  voice  of  the  speaker, 
as  he  sets  the  air  in  motion,  and  makes  the  air  his  messenger  to  us,  we  cer- 
tainly hear  him,  and  can  dispense  with  any  logical  myths  that  confound  the 
understanding,  and  contribute  to  no  good  result. 

552.  What  is  actinism  ? 

Actinism  is  the  chemical  property  of  light. 
Actinism— ray  power. 

553.  Why  does  silver  tarnish  when  exposed  to  light? 
Because  of  the  actinic,  or  chemical  power  of  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

554.  Why  do  some  colours  fade,  and  others  darken,  when 
exposed  to  the  sun  ? 

Because  of  the  chemical  power  of  the  sun's  rays. 

555.  Why  can  pictures  lie  taken  ty  the  sun's  rays  ? 
Because  of  the  actinic  powers  that  accompany  the  solar  light. 

556.  What    is   the  particular   chemical    effect    of  light 
exhibited  in  the  production  of  photographic  pictures  ? 

Simply  the  darkening  of  preparations  of  silver,  by  tJie  aclinic 

rays. 

557.  Why  are  photographic  studios  usually  glazed   with 
Hue  glass  ? 

6* 


130 


THE   REASON    WHY. 


"  The  hay  appeareth,  and  the  tender  grass  showeth  itself,  and  herbs  of  the 
mountain  are  gathered."— PBOV.  xxvil. 


Because  blue  glass  obstructs  many  of  the  luminous  rays,  but  it 
is  perfectly  transparent  to  actinism. 

558.  Why  do  plants  become  scorched  under  the  unclouded 
sun?  &  •    - 

Because  the  heat  rays  are  in  excess.  The  clouds  shut  off  the 
scorching  light;  but,  like  the  blue  glass  of  the  photographer's 
studio,  they  transmit  actinism. 

559.  What  effect  has  actinism  upon  vegetation  ? 

It  quickens  the  germination  of  seeds ;  and  assists  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  colouring  matter  of  leaves.  Seeds  and  cuttings,  which 
are  required  to  germinate  quickly,  will  do  so  under  the  effect  of  blue 
glass  (which  is  equivalent  to  saying,  the  effect  of  an  increased 
proportion  of  actinism),  in  half  the  time  they  would  otherwise 
require. 

560.  In  what  season  of  the  year  is  the  actinic  power  of 
light  the  greatest  ? 

In  the  spring,  when  the  germination  of  plants  demands  its 
vitalising  aid.  In  summer,  when  the  maturing  process  advances, 
light  and  heat  increase,  and  actinism  relatively  declines.  In  the 
autumn,  when  the  ripening  period  arrives,  light  and  actinism 
give  way  to  a  greater  ratio  of  heat. 

We  shall  have  frequently,  in  the  progress  of  our  lessons,  to  refer  to  light  in 
its  connection  with  the  chemistry  of  nature,  and  with  organic  life.  But  let  us 
now  invite  the  student  to  pause,  and  for  a  moment  contemplate  the  wonders 
of  a  sunbeam.  How  great  is  its  velocity— how  vast  its  power— how  varied  its 
parts— yet  how  ethereal!  First,  let  us  contemplate  it  as  a  simple  beam  in 
which  light  and  heat  are  associated.  How  deep  the  darkness  of  the  night,  and 
how  that  darkness  clings  to  the  recesses  of  the  earth.  But  the  day  beams,  and 
darkness  flies  before  it,  until  every  atom  that  meets  the  face  of  day  is  lit  up 
with  radiance.  That  which  before  lay  buried  in  the  shade  of  night  is  itself  now 
a  radiator  of  the  luminous  fluid.  Mark  the  genial  warmth  that  comes  as  the 
sister  of  light ;  then  stand  by  the  side  of  the  experimentalist  and  watch  the 
point  on  which  he  directs  the  shining  focus,  and  in  an  instant  see  iron  melt 
and  stones  run  like  water,  under  the  fervent  heat !  Now  look  upward  to  the 
heavens,  where  the  falling  drops  of  rain  have  formed  a  natural  prism  in  the 
rainbow,  and  shown  that  the  beam  of  pure  whiteness,  refracted  into  various 
rays,  glows  with  all  the  tints  that  adorn  the  garden  of  nature.  These  are  the 
visible  effects  of  light.  But  follow  it  into  the  crust  of  the  earth,  where  it  is,  by 
another  power,  which  is  neither  light  nor  heat,  quickening  the  seed  into  life; 
watch  it  as  the  germ  springs  up,  and  the  plant  puts  forth  its  tende 


TJIE    REASON    WHY.  131 


But  as  it  is  written,  Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  nave  entered 

into  the  heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God  hath  prepared  for 

them  that  love  him."— CORINTH.  BOOK  i.,  n. 


parts,  touching  them  from  day  to  day  with  deeper  dyes,  until  the  floral 
picture  is  complete.  Follow  it  unto  the  sea,  where  it  gives  prismatic  tints  to 
the  anemone,  and  imparts  the  richest  colours  to  the  various  algae.  Think  of 
the  millions  of  pictures  that  it  paints  daily  upon  the  eyes  of  living  things.  Con- 
template the  people  of  a  vast  city  when,  attracted  by  some  floating  toy  in  the 
air,  a  million  eyes  look  up  to  watch  its  progress.  The  sun  paints  a  million 
images  of  the  same  object,  and  each  observer  has  a  perfect  picture.  It  makes 
common  to  all  mankind  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  paints  as  richly  for  the 
peasant  as  for  the  king.  The  Siamese  twins  were  united  by  a  living  cord 
which  joined  their  systems,  and  gave  unity  and  sympathy  to  their  sensa- 
tions. In  the  great  flood  of  light  that  daily  bathes  the  world,  we  have  a  bond 
of  union,  giving  the  like  pleasures  and  inspirations  to  millions  of  people  at 
the  same  instant.  And  that  which  floods  the  world  with  beauty,  should  uo  less 
be  a  bond  of  unity  and  love. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

561.  What  is  electricity  ? 

Electricity  is  a  property  of  force  which  resides  in  all  matter,  and 
which  constantly  seeks  to  establish  an  equilibrium. 

562.  Why  is  it  called  electricity  ? 

Because  it  first  revealed  itself  to  human  observation  through  a 
substance  called,  in  the  Greek  language,  electrum.  This  substance 
is  known  to  us  as  amber. 

563.  In  what  way  did  electrum  induce  attention  to  this 
property  of  force  in  matter  ? 

Thales,  a  Greek  philosopher,  observed  that,  by  briskly  rubbing 
electrum,  it  acquired  the  property  of  attracting  light  particles  o/ 
matter,  which  moved  towards  the  amber,  and  attached  themselves 
to  its  surface,  evidently  under  the  influence  of  a  force  excited  in  the 
amber. 

564.  What  is  amber? 

It  is  a  resinous  substance,  hard,  bitter,  tasteless,  and  glossy. 
It  has  been  variously  supposed  to  be  a  vegetable  gum,  a  fossile,  and 
an  animal  product.  It  is  probably  formed  by  a  species  of  ant  that 
inhabit  pine  firests.  The  bodies  of  ants  are  frequently  found  in 
its  substance. 


t32  THE   SEASON   WHY. 

"  He  made  darkness  his  secret  place :  his  pavilion  round  about  him  were  dark 
waters  and  thick  clouds  of  the  skies. 


565.  Why  does  the  rubbing  of  a  stick  of  sealing-wax  cause 
it  to  attract  small  particles  of  matter  ? 

Because  it  excites  in  the  sealing-wax  that  force  which  was  first 
observed  in  the  amber.  Sealing-wax,  therefore,  is  called  an  electric 
(amber-like)  body. 

566.  Why  do  we  hear  of  the  electric  -fluid? 

Simply  because  the  term  fluid  is  the  most  convenient  that  can  be 
foimd  to  express  our  ideas  when  speaking  of  the  phenomena  of 
electric  force.  But  of  the  nature  of  electricity,  except  through  its 
observed  effects,  nothing  is  known. 

567.  What  substances  are  electric  ? 

All  substances  in  nature,  from  the  metals  to  the  gases.  But 
they  differ  very  widely  in  their  electrical  qualities. 

568.  What  is  positive  electricity? 

Electricity,  when  it  exists,  or  is  excited,  in  any  body,  to  an 
amount  which  is  in  excess  of  the  amount  natural  to  that  body,  is 
called  positive  (called  also  vitreous}. 

569.  What  is  negative  electricity  ? 

Electricity,  when  it  exists,  or  is  excited,  in  any  body,  in  an 
amount  which  is  less  than  is  the  amount  natural  to  that  body,  is 
called  negative  (called  also  resinous). 

570.  Why  is  "positive"  electricity  called  also  "vitreous." 
and  "negative"  electricity  called  also  "resinous  "? 

Because  some  philosophers  believe  that  there  is  but  one  elec- 
tricity, but  that  it  is  liable  to  variations  of  quantity  or  state, 
which  they  distinguish  by  positive  and  negative;  while  other 
philosophers  believe  that  there  are  two  electricities,  which  they 
name  vitreous  and  resinous,  because  they  may  be  induced 
respectively  from  vitreous  and  resinous  substances,  and  they  dis- 
play forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion. 

571.  Upon  what  do  the  electrical  phenomena  of  nature, 
depend  ? 

Upon  the  tendency  of  electricity  to  find  an  equilibrium  between 
its  positive  and  negative  states  (assuming  there  to  be  but  one  fluid) ; 


THE   REASON   WHY.  133 


The  Lord  also  thundered  in  the  heavens,  and  the  Highest  gave  his  voice ;  hail- 
stones and  coals  of  fire. 


or  upon  the  tendency  of  vitreous  electricity  to  seek  out  and  combine 
with  resinous  electricity  (assuming  that  there  are  two  fluids), 

572.  Sow    does    the  equilibrium    of  electricity    become 
disturbed  ? 

By  changes  in  the  condition  of  matter.  As  electricity  resides  in 
all  substances,  and  is,  perhaps,  an  essential  ingredient  in  their 
condition,  so  every  change  in  the  state  of  matter — whether  from 
heat  to  cold,  or  from  cold  to  heat ;  from  a  state  of  rest  to  that  of 
motion ;  from  the  solid  to  the  liquid,  or  the  aeriform  condition,  or 
vice  versa  ;  or  whether  substances  combine  chemically  and  produce 
new  compounds — in  every  change  the  electrical  equilibrium  is 
disturbed ;  and,  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  disturbance,  is  the 
force  exerted  by  electricity  to  resume  its  balance  in  the  scale  of 
nature. 

573.  How  does  electricity  seek  to  regain  equilibrium  ? 

By  passing  through  substances  that  are  favourable  to  its  diffu- 
sion ;  therefore  they  are  called  conducting  or  non-conducting  bodies, 
according  as  they  favour  or  oppose  the  transmission  of  the  electrical 
current. 

574.  What  substances  are  conductors  of  electricity  ? 
Metals,  charcoal,  animal  fluids,  water,  vegetable  bodies,  animal 

bodies,  flame,  smoke,  vapour,  &c. 

575.  What  substances  are  non-conductors  ? 

Rust,  oils,  phosphorous,  lime,  chalk,  caoutchouc,  gutta  percha, 
camphor,  marble,  porcelain,  dry  gases  and  air,  feathers,  hair,  wool, 
silk,  glass,  transparent  stones,  vitrefactions,  wax,  amber,  &c.  These 
bodies  are  also  called  insulators.  Some  of  these  substances,  as 
chalk,  feathers,  hair,  wool,  silk,  &c.,  though  non-conductors  when 
dry,  become  conductors  when  wetted. 

Insulating— preventing  from  escaping. 

576.  Why  are  amber  and  wax  classed  among   the   non^ 
conductors,  token  they  have  been  pointed  out  as  electrics,  and 
used  to  illustrate  electrical  force  ? 

It  is  because  they  are  non-conductors  that  they  have  displayed, 
under  excitement,  the  attractive  force  shown  in  respect  to  the 


134  THE   EEASON    WHY. 


"  Yea,  he  sent  out  his  arrows,  and  scattered  them  ;  and  he  shot  out  lightnings 
and  discomfited  them."— PSALM  xvin. 

particles  of  matter  which  were  drawn  towards  their  substances.  If 
a  bar  of  iron  were  excited,  instead  of  a  stick  of  wax,  electricity 
would  be  equally  developed ;  but  the  iron,  being  a  good  conductor, 
would  pass  the  electricity  to  the  hand  of  the  operator  as  fast  as  it 
accumulated,  and  the  equilibrium  would  be  undisturbed. 

577.  What  is  the  effect  when  electricity,  in  considerable 
force,  seeks  its  equilibrium,  but  meets  with  insulating  bodies  ? 

The  result  is  a  violent  action  in  which,  intense  heat  and  light 
are  developed,  and  in  the  evolution  of  which  the  electric  force 
becomes  expended. 

578.  What  is  the  cause  of  electric  sparks  ? 

The  electric  force,  passing  through  a  conducting  body  to  find  its 
equilibrium,  is  checked  in  its  course  by  an  insulator,  and  emits  a 
spark. 

579.  What  produces  the  electric  light? 

Currents  of  electricity  pass  towards  each  other  along  wires  at  the 
ends  of  which  two  charcoal  points  are  placed.  As  long  as  the  char- 
coal points  remain  in  contact,  the  electric  communication  is  complete, 
and  no  light  is  emitted,  but,  when  they  are  drawn  apart,  intense 
heat  and  light  are  evolved. 


FigS.  17  &  18.-SHOWISG  THE   EFFECT  OF  THE  UNIOX  AND  THE   SEPARATION 
OF  THE  CHARCOAL    POINTS. 

580.  What  is  the  cause  of  lightning  ? 

Lightning  is  the  result  of  electrical  discharges  from  the  clouds. 

581.  What  developes  electricity  in  the  clouds  ? 
Evaporations    from    the    surface    of   the    earth;     changes    of 

temperature  in  the  atmospheric  vapour  ;  chemical  action  upon  the 
earth's  surface;  and  the  friction  of  volumes  of  air  of  different 
densities  against  each  other. 


THE   EEASON    WHY.  135 


"  His  lightnings  enlightened  the  world :  the  earth  saw  and  trembled." — 

PSAiM  XCVII. 


582.  Why  do  these  phenomena  produce  electricity? 

Because  they  disturb  the  equilibrium  of  the  electric  force,  and 
produce  positive  and  negative  states  of  electricity. 

583.  When  does  lightning  occur  ? 

When  clouds,  charged  with  the  opposite  electricities  approach, 
the  forces  rush  to  each  other,  and  combine  in  a  state  of  equilibrium. 

584.  Why  does   lightning   attend  this  movement  of  the 
forces  of  electricity  ? 

Because  the  atmosphere,  being-  unable  to  convey  the  great  charges 
of  electricity  as  they  rush  towards  each  other,  acts  as  an  insulator, 
and  lightning  is  caused  by  the  violence  of  the  electricity  inferring 
its  passage. 

585.  Does  lightning  ever  occur  when  the  conducting  power 
is  equal  to  the  force  of  the  electricity? 

No ;  electricity  passes  invisibly,  noiselessly,  and  harmlessly, 
whenever  it  finds  a  sufficient  source  of  conduction. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

586.  Why  does  lightning  sometimes  travel  through  a  "  zig- 
zag" course? 

Because  the  electricity,  being  resisted  in  its  progress  by  the  air, 
flies  from  side  to  side,  to  find  the  readiest  passage. 

587.  Why  does  lightning  sometimes  appear  forked  ? 

Because,  being  resisted  in  its  progress  by  the  air,  the  electricity 
divides  into  two  or  more  points,  and  seeks  a  passage  in  different 
directions. 

588.  Why  is  lightnmg  sometimes  like  a  lurid  sheet  ? 

Because  the  flash  is  distant,  and  therefore  we  see  only  the 
reflection. 


13G  THE    SEASON    WHY. 

"  He  directeth  it  under  the  whole  heavens,  and  his  lightning  unto  the  ends  of 
the  earth. 


589.  When  is  the  flash  of  lightning  straight  ? 

When  the  distance  between  the    clouds   whose  electricities  are 
meeting1,  is  small. 

590.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  aurora  borealis  ? 

The  mingling  of  the  electricities  of  the  higher  regions  of  the 
atmosphere. 

591.  When  does  the  flash  of  lightning  appear  Hue? 

When  the  degree  of  electrical  excitement  is  intense,  and  general 
throughout  the  atmosphere. 

592.  Why  does  lightning  sometimes  appear  red,  at  others 
yellow,  and  at  others  white  ? 

Because  of  the  varying  humidity,  which  affects  the  refracting 
power  of  the  atmosphere. 

593.  Does  lightning  ever  pass  upwards  from  the  earth  to 
the  clouds  ? 

Yes ;  when  the  earth  is  charged  with  a  different  electricity  to 
that  which  is  in  the  clouds. 

594.  Does  lightning  ever  pass  directly  from  the  clouds  to 
the  earth  ? 

Yes ;  when  the  electricity  of  the  clouds  seeks  to  combine  with 
the  different  electricity  of  the  earth. 

The  mingling  of  the  electricities  of  the  earth  and  the  air  must  be  continuall.v 
going  on.  But  lightning  does  not  attend  the  phenomena,  because  all  natural 
bodies,  vapours,  trees,  animals,  mountains,  houses,  rocks,  &c..  &c.,  act  more  "r 
less  as  conductors  between  the  earth  and  the  air.  It  is  only  when  there  is  a 
great  disturbance  of  the  electrical  forces,  that  terrestrial  lightning  is  developed. 
"When  lightning  strikes  the  earth  with  great  force,  it  sometimes  produces  wlint 
are  called  fulgurites  in  sandy  soils;  these  are  hollow  tubes,  produced  by  the 
melting  of  the  soil. 

595.  What  is  the  extent  of  mechanical  force  of  lightning  ? 
Lightning  has  been  proved,  in  one  instance,  to  have  struck  a 

church  with  a  force  equal  to  more  than  12,000  horse- power.  A 
single  horse-power,  in  mechanical  calculations,  is  equivalent  to 
raising  a  weight  of  32,000  Ibs.  one  foot  in  a  minute.  The  force  of 


THE   REASON   WHY.  137 


1  After  it  a  voice  roareth  :  he  thundereth  with  the  voice  of  his  excellency ;  and 
he  will  not  stay  them  when  his  voice  is  heard."— JOB  xxxvii. 


lightning-,  therefore,  has  been  proved  to  be  equal  to  the  raising  of 
384,000,000  Ibs.  one  foot  in  a  minute.  This  is  equal  to  the  united 
power  of  twelve  of  our  largest  steamers,  having  collectively  24 
engines  of  500  horse-power  each.  The  velocity  of  electricity  is  so 
great  that  it  would  travel  round  the  world  eight  times  in  a  minute. 

The  church  alluded  to  was  St.  George's  church,  Leicester,  a  new  edifice,  which 
was  completely  destroyed  on  the  1st  of  August,  1846,  by  a  thunderstorm.  The 
steeple  was  rent  asunder,  and  massive  stones  were  hurled  to  a  distance  of 
thirty  feet.  The  vane  rod  and  top  part  of  the  spire  fell  down  perpendicularly 
a;id  carried  with  it  all  the  floors  of  the  tower.  A  similar  disaster  occurred  to 
St.  Bride's  church,  Fleet-street,  London,  about  100  years  ago.  The  lightning 
first  struck  upflri  the  metal  vane  of  the  steeple,  and  then  ran  down  the  rod  and 
attacked  the  iron  -cramps,  smashing  the  large  stones  that  lay  between  them. 
The  church  was  nearly  destroyed.  By  the  same  wonderful  force,  ships  have 
been  disabled,  trees  split  asunder,  houses  thrown  down,  and  animals  struck 
dead. 

596.  Why  is  it  dangerous  to  stand  near  a  tree  during  an 
electric  storm  ? 

Because  the  tree  is  a  letter  conductor  than  air,  and  electricity 
would  probably  strike  the  tree,  and  then  pass  to  the  person  stand- 
ing near. 

597.  If  trees  are  good  conductors,  why  do  they  not  convey 
the  electricity  to  the  ground  ? 

Trees  are  only  indifferent  conductors,  and  the  electricity  would 
quit  the  tree  to  pass  through  any  letter  conductor. 

598.  Why  is  it  dangerous  to  sit  near  a  jire  during  an 
electric  storm  ? 

Because  the  chimney,  being  a  tall  object,  and  smoke  a  good 
conductor,  would  probably  attract  the  electricity,  and  convey  it  to 
the  body  of  a  person  sitting  near  the  fire. 

599.  Why  is  it  dangerous  to  be  near  water  during  an 
electric  storm  ? 

Because  water  is  a  good  conductor,  and  the  vapour  arising  from 
it  might  attract  the  electricity.  Man,  being  elevated  over  the 
water,  might  form  the  first  point  attacked  by  the  electricity. 

600.  Are  iron  houses  dangerous  during  an  electric  storm  ? 
No  j  they  are  very  safe,  because  their  entire  surface  is  ft  good 


138  THE   SEASON    WHY. 


"  To  him  that  rideth  upon  the  heavens  of  heavens,  which  were  of  old ;  lo,  he 
doth  send  out  his  voice,  and  that  a  mighty  voice."— PSALU  LXVIII. 


conductor,   and  would  convey  the   electricity  harmlessly   to  the 
earth. 

601.   Why  does  electricity  seize  upon  bell  wires  and  iron 


Because  copper  wires  are  the  very  best  conductors  of  electricity  ; 
and  iron  articles  are  also  good  conductors. 

602.  Supposing  electricity   to   attack  a  bell  wire,  where 
would  the  point  of  danger  exist  ? 

At  the  extremities  of  the  wire,  where  the  conducting  power  of 
the  wire  would  cease,  and  the  electricity  would  seek  to  find  another 
conductor. 

603.  A.re  umbrellas,  with  steel  frames,  dangerous  in  an 
electric  storm  ? 

They  are  dangerous  in  some  degree,  because  they  might  convey 
electricity  to  the  hand,  and  then  transfer  it  to  the  body.  But, 
generally  speaking,  when  it  rains,  the  rain  itself,  being  a  good 
conductor,  relieves  the  disturbance  of  electricity  by  conveying  it  to 
the  ground. 

604.  Are  iron  bedsteads  dangerous  in  electric  storms  ? 

No,  they  are  safe,  because  the  iron  frame,  completely  surround- 
ing the  body,  and  having  a  great  capacity  for  conduction,  would 
keep  the  electricity  away  from  the  body. 

605.  Why  is  it  safe  to  be  in  bed  during  an  electric  storm  ? 
Because  feathers,  hair,  wool,  cotton,  &c.,  especially  when  dry, 

are  good  insulators  or  non-conductors. 

606.  What   is   the   safest  situation   to   be  in  during  an 
electric  storm  ? 

In  the  centre  of  a  room,  isolated  as  far  as  possible  from  sur- 
rounding objects  ;  sitting  on  a  chair,  and  avoiding  handling  any  of 
the  conducting  substances.  The  windows  and  dours  should  be 
closed,  to  prevent  drafts  of  air. 

607.  In  the  open  air,  what  is  the  safest  situation  ? 


THE   EEASON    WHY.  139 


God  thundereth  marvellously  with  his  voice :  great  things  doeth  he,  which  \re 
cannot  comprehend." — JOB  xxxvi. 


To  keep  aloof,  as  far  as  possible,  from  elevated  structures ;  and 
regard  the  rain,  though  it  might  saturate  our  clothes,  as  a  protec- 
tion against  the  lightning  stroke,  for  wet  clothes  would  supply 
so  good  a  conductor,  that  a  large  amount  of  electricity  would  pass 
over  man's  body,  through  wet  garments,  and  he  would  be  quite 
unconscious  of  it. 

During  a  violent  electric  storm  in  the  Shetland  Islands,  a  fishing  boat  was 
attacked  by  the  electric  fluid,  which  tore  the  mast  to  shivers.  A  fisherman  was 
sitting  by  the  side  of  the  mast  at  the  time,  but  he  felt  no  shock.  Upon  taking 
out  his  watch,  however,  he  found  that  the  electric  current  had  actually  fused 
his  watch  into  a  mass.  In  this  case,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  man  was 
saved  through  the  saturation  of  his  clothes  with  rain. 

608.  Do  lightning  conductors  "  attract"  electricity  ? 
Not  unless  the  electric  current  lies  in  their  vicinity. 

609.  Wliy  have  lightning  conductors  sometimes  been  found 
ineffective  ? 

Because  they  have  been  unskilfully  constructed ;  have  been  too 
small  in  their  dimensions,  and  have  not  been  properly  laid  to 
convey  the  electricity  harmlessly  away. 

610.  W  hat  is  the  lest  metal  for  a  lightning  conductor  ? 
Copper,  the  conducting  power  of  which  is  Jive  times  greater 

than  that  of  iron. 

611.  Why  should  a  large  building  have  several  conductors  ? 
Because  the  influence  of  a  conductor  over  the  electricity  of  the 

surrounding  air  does  not  extend  to  more  than  a  radius  of  double  the 
height  of  the  conductor  above  the  building :  for  instance,  a 
conductor  rising  ten  feet  high  above  the  building  would  influence 
the  electricity  twenty  feet  all  round  the  conductor. 

612.  Why  should  conductors  have  at  their  base  several 
tranches  penetrating  the  earth  ? 

To  facilitate  the  discharge  of  the  accumulated  electricity  into 
the  earth. 

613.  Why  does  electricity  affect  the  shapes  of  clouds  ? 
Because  electricity  does  not  penetrate  the  masses  of  bodies,  but 

affects  generally  their  surfaces.     Hence  electricity  exists  in  tho 


140  THE    REASON   WHY. 

"  All  ye  inhabitants  of  the  world,  and  dwellers  on  the  earth,  see  ye,  when  he 

lifteth  up  an  ensign  on  the  mountains ;  and  when  he  bloweth  a 

trumpet,  hear  ye."— ISAIAH  xvni. 


surfaces  of  clouds,  and  in  its  efforts  iofind  an  equilibrium  it  causes 
the  clouds  to  roll  in  heavy  masses,  having  dark  outlines. 

The  fact  that  electricity  resides  in,  and  is  conducted  by,  the  surj 'aces  of  bodies, 
is  well  established,  and  should  receive  due  attention  in  the  protective  measures 
adopted  to  secure  life  and  property  against  the  effects  of  lightning.  A  practical 
suggestion  that  arises  out  of  this  fact  is,  that  tubes  of  copper  would  form  far 
more  efficient  conductors  than  bars  of  the  same  metal.  A  copper  tube,  of  half 
an  inch  diameter,  would  conduct  nearly  double  the  amount  of  electricity  which 
could  be  conveyed  away  by  a  bar  of  copper  of  the  same  diameter.  The  upper 
extremity  of  the  tube  should  be  open  obliquely,  that  the  electric  current  might 
be  induced  to  pass  over  both  the  inner  and  outer  surfaces. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

614.  What  is  thunder? 

Thunder  is  the  noise  which  succeeds  the  rush  of  the  electrical 
fluid  through  the  air. 

615.  Why  does  noise  follow  the  commotion  caused  by  elec- 
tricity ? 

Because,  by  the  violence  of  the  electric  force,  vast  fields  of  air 
are  divided ;  great  volumes  of  air  are  rarefied  ;  and  vapours  are 
condensed,  and  thrown  down  as  rain.  Thunder  ig  therefore  caused 
by  the  vibrations  of  Ike  air,  as  it  collapses,  and  seeks  to  restore  its 
own  equilibrium. 

616.  Why  is   the  thunder-peal  sometimes  loud  and  con- 
tinuous ? 

Because  the  electrical  discharge  take  place  near  the  hearer,  and 
therefore  the  vibrations  of  the  air  are  heard  in  their  full  power. 

617.  Why    is    the   thunder-peal   sometimes    broken    and 
unequal  ? 

Because  the  electrical  discharge  takes  place  at  a  considerable 
distance,  and  the  vibrations  are  affected  in  their  course  by 
mountains  and  valleys.  Because,  also,  the  forked  arms  of  the 


THE    REASON   WHY.  14 1 


**  Lo,  these  are  parts  of  his  ways ;  but  how  little  a  portion  is  heard  of  him  ?  but 
the  thunder  of  his  power  who  can  understand  ?" — JOB  xxv. 


lightning  strike  out  in  different  directions,  causing  the  sounds  of 
thunder  to  reach  us  from  varying  distances. 

618.  Why  has  the  thunder-peal  sometimes  a  low  grumbling 
noise  ? 

Because  the  electrical  discharges,  though  violent,  take  place  far 
away,  and  the  vibrations  of  the  air  become  subdued. 

619.  Why  does  the  thunder-peal  sometimes  follow  imme- 
diately after  the  flash  of  lightning  ? 

Because  the  discharge  of  electricity  takes  place  near  the  hearer. 

620.  Why  does  the  thunder-peal  sometimes  occur  several 
seconds  after  the  flash  ? 

Because  the  discharge  takes  place  far  away,  and  light  travels  with 
a  much  greater  velocity  than  sound. 

621.  Through  what  distance  will   the  sound  of  thunder 
travel ? 

Some  twenty  or  thirty  miles,  according  to  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  and  the  violence  of  the  peal. 

622.  Through  what  distance  will   the   light  of  lightning 

travel  ? 

» 

The  light  of  lightning,  and  its  reflections,  will  penetrate  through 
a  distance  of  from  a  hundred  andjifty  to  two  hundred  miles. 

623.  How   may  we  calculate   the   distance  at  which  the 
electric  discharge  takes  place? 

Sound  travels  at  the  rate  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  a  second.  If, 
therefore,  the  peal  of  thunder  is  he-ird  four  seconds  after  the  flash 
of  lightning,  the  discharge  took  place  about  a  mile  off.  The  pulse 
of  an  adult  person  beats  about  once  in  a  second;  therefore,  guided 
by  the  pulse,  any  person  may  calculate  the  probable  distance  of  tha 
storm  : — 

2  beats,  |  a  mile. 

3  beats,  f  of  a  mile. 

4  beats,  1  mile. 


142  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


"  The  clouds  poured  out  water ;  the  skies  sent  out  a  sound ;  thine  arrows  also 
went  abroad. 


5  beats,  1%  miles. 

6  beats,  1£  miles. 

7  beats,  If  miles. 

8  beats,  2  miles,  &c. 

Attention  should  be  paid  to  the  direction  and  speed  of  the  wind, 
and  some  modifications  of  the  calculation  be  made  accordingly. 
Persons  between  20  and  40  years  of  age  should  count  Jive  beats  of 
the  pulse  to  a  mile ;  under  20,  six  beats. 

624.  Why  are  electric  storms  more  frequent  in  hot  than 
in  cold  weather  ? 

Because  of  the  greater  evaporation,  as  the  effect  of  heat ;  and 
also  of  the  effect  of  heat  upon  the  particles  of  all  bodies. 

625.  Why  do   electric  storms  frequently  occur  after  a 
duration  of  dry  weather  ? 

Because  dry  air,  being  a  bad  conductor,  prevents  the  opposite 
electricities  from  finding  their  equilibrium. 

626.  Why  is  a  flash  of  lightning  generally  succeeded  by 
heavy  rain  ? 

Because  the  electrical  discharge  destroys  the  vescicles  of  the 
vapours.  If  a  number  of  small  soap-bubbles  floating  in  the  air 
were  suddenly  broken  by  a  violent  commotion  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  thin  films  of  the  bubbles  would  form  dmps  of  water,  and  fall 
like  rain. 

627.  Why  is  an  electrical  discharge  usually  followed  by  a 
gust  of  wind? 

Because  the  equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere  is  disturbed  by  the 
heat  and  velocity  of  lightning,  and  the  condensation  of  vapour. 
Air,  therefore,  rushes  towards  those  parts  where  a  degree  of  vacuity 
or  rarefaction  has  been  produced. 

628.  What  is  a  thunderbolt  ? 

The  name  thunderbolt  is  applied  to  an  electrical  discharge,  when 
the  lightning  appears  to  be  developed  with  the  greatest  intensity 
around  a  nucleus,  or  centre,  as  though  it  contained  a  burning  body. 
But  there  is,  in  reality,  no  such  thing  as  a  thunderbolt. 


THE   REASON   WHY.  143 


"  The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  upon  the  waters :  the  God  of  glory  thundereth ;  the 
Lord  is  upon  many  waters." — PSALM  xxix. 


629.  Why  do  electric  storms  purify  the  air? 

Because  they  restore  the  equilibrium  of  electricity  which  is 
essential  to  the  salubrity  of  the  atmosphere;  they  intermix  the 
gases  of  the  atmosphere,  by  agitation ;  they  precipitate  the  v  apours 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  with  the  precipitation  of  vapours,  noxious 
exhalations  are  taken  to  the  earth,  where  they  become  absorbed  ; 
they  also  contribute  largely  to  the  formation  of  ozone,  which 
imparts  to  the  air  corrective  and  restorative  properties. 

630.  What  is  ozone  ? 

Ozone  is  an  atmospheric  element  recently  discovered,  and  respect- 
ing which  differences  of  opinion  prevail.  It  is  generally  supposed 
to  be  oxygen  in  a  state  of  great  strength,  constituting  a  variety  of 
form  or  condition. 

631.  Why  do  we  know  that  electricity  contributes  to  the 
formation  of  ozone  ? 

Because  careful  observations  have  established  the  fact  that  the 
proportion  of  ozone  in  the  atmosphere  is  relative  to  the  amount  of 
electricity. 

632.  What  are  the  properties  of  ozone? 

It  displays  an  extraordinary  power  in  the  neutralisation  of  putre- 
factions, rapidly  and  thoroughly  counteracting  noxious  exhalations ; 
it  is  the  most  powerful  of  all  disinfectants. 

Schonbien,  the  discoverer  of  ozone,  inclines  to  the  opinion  that  it  is  a  new 
chemical  clement.  Whatever  it  may  be,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  economy  of  nature.  Its  absence  has  been  marked  by 
pestilential  ravages,  as  in  the  cholera  visitations ;  and  to  its  excess  are  attributed 
epidemics,  such  as  influenza.  It  was  found,  during  the  last  visitation  of  cholera, 
that  the  fumigation  of  houses  with  sulphur  had  a  remarkably  efficacy  in 
preventing  the  spread  of  the  contagion.  The  combustion  of  sulphur  ozonised 
the  atmosphere ;  the  same  result  occurs  through  the  emission  of  phosphoric 
vapours;  ozone  is  also  developed  by  the  electricity  evolved  by  the  electrical 
machine,  and  in  the  greater  electrical  phenomena  of  nature.  The  smell 
imparted  to  the  air  during  an  electric  storm  is  identical  with  that  which  occurs 
in  the  vicinity  of  an  electrical  apparatus— it  is  &  fresh  and  sulphurous  odour. 
The  opinion  is  gaining  ground  that  the  respiration  of  animals  and  the  combustion 
of  matter  are  sources  of  ozone,  and  that  plants  produce  it  when  under  the 
influence  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  It  is  also  believed  to  be  produced  by 
water,  when  the  sun's  rays  fall  upon  it.  The  most  recent  opinion  respecting 
ozone  is,  that  it  is  electrized  oxygen.  The  subject  is  of  vast  importance,  and 
opens  another  field  of  discovery  to  tho  pioneers  of  scientific  truth. 


144  THE    KEASON    WIIY. 


1  The  voice  of  thy  thunder  was  in  the  heaven :  the  lightnings  lightened  the 
world,  the  earth  trembled  and  shook." — PSALM  xxvii. 


633.  What  is  magnetism  ? 

Magnetism  is  the  electricity  of  the  earth,  and  is  characterised 
by  the  circulation  of  currents  of  electricity  passing  through  the 
earth's  surface. 

634.  What  are  magnetic  bodies  ? 

Magnetic  bodies  are  those  that  exhibit  phenomena  which  show 
that  they  are  under  the  influence  of  terrestrial  electricity,  and 
which  indicate  the  direction  of  the  poles,  or  extreme  points,  of 
magnetic  force. 

635.  What  is  Galvanism? 

Galvanism  is  the  action  of  electricity  upon  animal  bodies,  and  is 
so  called  from  the  name  of  its  first  discoverer,  Galvani. 

636.  What  is  Voltaic  electricity  ? 

Voltaic  electricity  is  the  electricity  that  is  developed  during 
chemical  changes,  and  is  so  called  after  Volta,  who  enlarged  upon 
the  theory  of  Galvani. 

637.  What  are   the  differences   between   mechanical,   or 
fractional    electricity,    Voltaic    electricity,    Galvanism,    and 
magnetism  ? 

functional  electricity  is  electricity  suddenly  liberated  under  the 
effects  of  the  motion,  or  the  mechanical  disturbance  of  bodies. 

Voltaic  electricity  is  a  steady  flow  of  an  electric  current,  arising 
from  the  gradual  changes  of  chemical  phenomena. 

Galvanism,  and  Voltaism  are  almost  identical,  since  the  latter  is 
founded  upon,  and  is  a  development  of,  the  former.  But  the 
term  Galvanism  is  frequently  used  when  speaking  of  the  develop- 
ment of  electricity  in  animal  bodies. 

Magnetism  is  the  electricity  of  the  earth,  and  is  understood  tc 
imply  infixed  electricity  ofterrestial  bodies. 

Man  knows  not  what  electricity  is ;  yet,  by  an  attentive  observance  of  its 
effects,  he  avails  himself  of  the  power  existing  in  an  unknown  source,  and 
produces  marvellous  results.  When  the  Grecian  philosopher,  Thales,  sat 
rubbing  a  piece  of  amber,  and  watching  the  attraction  of  small  particles  of 
matter  to  its  surface,  he  little  knew  of  the  mighty  power  that  was  then 
whispering  to  him  its  offer  to  serve  mankind.  And  when  Franklin,  with  the 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  145 


"  And  I  heard  as  it  were  the  voice  of  a  great  multitude,  and  as  the  voice  of  many 

waters,  and  as  the  voice  of  mighty  thunderings,  saying  Alleluia :  for  the 

Lord  God  omnipotent  reigneth." — REV.  xix. 


aid  of  a  boy's  plaything,  drew  down  an  electric  current  from  the  clouds,  and 
caught  a  spark  upon  the  knuckles  of  his  hand,  even  he  little  conjectured  that 
the  time  was  so  near  when  that  strange  element,  which  sent  its  messenger 
to  him  along  the  string  of  a  kite,  would  become  one  of  man's  most  submissive 
servants. 

So  many  great  results  have  sprung  from  the  careful  observation  of  the 
simplest  phenomena,  that  we  should  never  pass  over  inattentively  the  most 
trilling  thing  that  offers  itself  to  our  examination.  Nature,  in  her  revelations, 
never  seeks  to  startle  mankind.  The  formation  of  a  rock,  and  the  elaboration  of 
a  truth,  are  alike  the  work  of  ages.  It  was  the  simple  blackening  of  silver  by  the 
sun's  rays  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  chemical  agency  of  light.  It  was 
the  falling  of  an  apple  which  pointed  Newton  to  the  discovery  of  the  laws  of 
gravitation.  It  was  the  force  of  steam,  observed  as  it  issued  from  beneath  the 
lid  of  a  kettle,  that  led  to  the  invention  of  the  steam-engine.  And  it  is  said  of 
Jacquard,  that  he  invented  the  loom  which  so  materially  aided  the  commerce  of 
nations,  while  watching  the  motions  of  his  wife's  fingers,  as  she  plied  her 
knitting.  As  great  discoveries  spring  from  such  small  beginnings,  who  among 
us  may  not  be  the  herald  of  some  great  truth— the  iounder  of  some  world-wide 
benefaction  ? 

That  the  area  of  discovery  has  not  perceptibly  narrowed  its  limits,  is  evident 
from  the  fact  that  the  g-eatest  elements  in  nature  are  still  mysteries  to  man. 
And  though  it  may  not  be  within  the  power  of  a  finite  being  to  unravel  the  chain 
of  wonders  that  enfold  the  works  of  an  infinite  God, — still  it  is  evident,  from 
the  progress  which  discovery  has  made,  and  from  the  good  which  discovery  has 
done,  that  God  does  invite  and  encourage  the  human  mind  to  contemplate  the 
workings  of  Divine  power,  and  to  pursue  its  manifestations  in  every  element, 
and  in  every  direction. 

The  wonderful  force  of  electricity  astonishes  us  all  the  more  when  we  view  it 
in  contrast  with  that  equally  wonderful  element,  light.  We  have  seen  that 
light  travels  with  a  velocity  of  192,000  miles  in  a  second,  but  that  it  falls  upon 
a  delicate  balance  so  gently,  that  it  produces  no  perceptible  effect.  As  far  as 
we  know  the  nature  of  electricity,  it  is  even  more  ethereal  than  light;  yet, 
while  the  ether  of  light  falls  harmlessly  and  imperceptibly— even  with  the 
momentum  of  a  flight  of  ninety-five  millions  of  miles,  the  ether  of  electricity, 
bursting  from  a  cloud  o\\\yfive  hundred  yards  distant,  will  split  massive  stones, 
level  tall  towers  with  the  dust,  strike  majestic  trees  to  the  ground,  and  instantly 
extinguish  the  life  of  man !  Why  does  the  one  ether  come  divested  of  all 
mechanical  force,  while  that  which  seems  to  be  even  more  ethereal  than  it, 
is  c-apable  of  exerting  the  mightiest  force  over  material  things?  Does  it  not 
appear  that  the  Creator  of  the  universe  has  established  these  paradoxes  of 
power  to  testify  his  Omnipotence — to  show  to  man  that  with  Him  all  things  are 
possible ;  and  that,  in  the  grand  cosmicism  of  the  universe,  every  attribute  of 
Omnipotence  has  been  fulfilled  ? 

Let  us  now  consider  man's  relation  to  this  Omnipotence.  He  sees  that 
electricity  smites  the  tall  edifice,  and  observes  that  in  doing  so  it  displays  a 
choice  of  a  certain  substance  through  which  it  passes  harmlessly,  and  that  its 
violence  is  manifested  only  when  its  path  is  interrupted.  Man,  taking  advan- 
tage of  this  preference  of  electricity  for  a  particular  conductor,  stretches  out 
au  arm  of  that  substance,  and  points  it  upwards  to  the  clouds;  electricity 

7 


146  THE   EEASON    WHY. 


"  And  the  seventh  angel  poured  out  his  vial  into  the  air ;  and  there  came  a 

great  voice  out  of  the  temple  of  heaven,  from  the  throne,  saying, 

It  is  done."— REY.  xvi. 

accepts  the  invitation,  and  passes  harmlessly  to  the  earth.  But  this  not  all : 
man  learn&by  observation  that  electricity  resides  in  all  matter ;  that  it  may  bo 
collected  or  dispersed;  that  it  travels  along  a  good  conductor  at  the  rate  of 
half-a-million  of  miles  in  a  second  of  time ;  he  constructs  a  battery,  a  kind  of 
scientific  fortress,  in  which  he  encamps  the  great  warrior  of  nature ;  and  then, 
laying  down  a  conducting  wire,  he  liberates  the  mighty  force :  but  its  flight 
must  be  on  the  path  which  man  has  defined,  and  its  journey  must  cease  at  the 
terminus  which  man  has  decreed,  where,  by  a  simple  contrivance  of  his  ingenuity 
(the  movements  of  a  magnetic  needle) ,  the  electric  current  is  made  to  deliver 
whatever  message  of  importance  he  desires  to  convey.  Thus,  the  element 
which  in  an  instant  might  deprive  man  of  life,  is  subdued  by  him,  and  made 
the  obedient  messenger  of  his  will 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

638.  What  is  the  atmosphere  ? 

The  atmosphere  is  the  transparent  and  elastic  body  of  mixed 
gases  and  vapours  which  envelopes  our  globe,  and  which  derives  its 
name  from  Greek  words,  signifying-  sphere  of  vapour. 

639.  To  ivhat  height  does  the  atmosphere  extend? 

It  is  estimated  to  extend  to  from  forty  to  fifty  miles  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth. 

640.  Why  is  it  supposed   that  the  atmosphere  does   not 
extend  beyond  that  height? 

Because  it  is  found,  by  experiment  and  observation,  that  the  air 
becomes  less  dense  in  proportion  to  its  altitude  from  the  earth's 
surface.  The  gradual  decrease  of  atmospheric  density  observed  in 
ascending  a  mountain,  or  in  a  balloon,  supplies  sufficient  data  to 
enable  us  to  calculate  the  height  at  which  the  atmosphere  would 
probably  altogether  cease. 

At  an  altitude  of  18,000  feet  the  air  is  indicated  by  the  barometer  to  be  only 
Juilfas  dense  as  at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  And  as  the  densities  of  the  atmo- 
sphere decrease  in  a  geometrical  progression,  the  density  will  be  reduced  to  one- 
fourth  at  the  height  of  36,000  feet ;  and  to  one-eighth  at  54,000  feet.  The  effects 
of  the  decreasing  density  of  the  atmosphere  are,  that  the  intensity  of  light  and 
sound  are  diminished,  and  the  temperature  is  lowered.  Persons  who  have 
reached  a  very  high  elevation,  state  that  the  sky  above  them  began  to  assume 
the  appearance  of  darkness  ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  if  it  were  possible 
to  reach  an  altitude  of  some  fifty  to  sixty  miles,  there  would  be  perfect  black- 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  147 


For  he  looketh  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  seeth  under  the  whole  heaven; 
To  make  the  weight  for  the  winds."— JOB  xxvin. 


ness,  although  the  sun's  rays  might  be  pouring  through  the  darkened  space,  to 
illuminate  the  atmosphere.  Upon  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  the  report  of  a 
pistol  at  a  short  distance  can  scarcely  be  heard.  When  Gay  Lussac  reached  the 
height  of  23,000  feet,  he  breathed  with  great  pain  and  difficulty,  and  felt  dis- 
tressing sensations  in  his  ears,  as  though  they  were  about  to  burst.  Upon  the 
high  table-lands  of  Peru,  the  lips  of  Dr.  Ischudi  cracked  and  burst ;  and  blood 
tiowed  from  his  eyelids. 

641.  What  is  the  amount  of  atmospheric  pressure  at  the 
earth's  surface  ? 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  earth's  surface  is  fifteen 
pounds  to  every  square  inch  of  surface.  That  is  to  say,  that  the 
column  of  air,  extending  fifty  miles  over  a  square  inch  of  the  earth, 
presses  upon  that  square  inch  with  a  weight  equal  to  fifteen 


642.  Is  that  the  weight  of  dry  or  moist  air? 

That  is  the  weight  of  air  at  what  is  called  the  point  of  saturation, 
when  it  is  folly  charged  with  watery  vapour. 

643.  What  is    the  proportion  of  watery  vapour   in    the 
atmosphere  ? 

The  proportion  constantly  varies.  Evaporation  is  not  a  result  of 
accident ;  it  seems  an  established  law  that  the  air  shall  constantly 
absorb  vapour  until  it  has  reached  the  maximum  that  it  can  hold. 
Experiments  have  been  tried,  in  which  dry  air  has  been  pressed 
upon  the  surface  of  water  with  great  force,  but  no  degree  of 
pressure  could  prevent  the  formation  of  vapour.  (See  431.) 

644.  What  is  the  total  amount  of  atmospheric  pressure  on 
the  earth? s  surface  ? 

The  total  amount  of  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  earth's  surface,  at 
151bs.  to  the  square  inch,  amounts  to  12,042,604,800 ,000,000,0001bs. 
This  pressure  is  equal  to  that  of  a  globe  of  lead  of  sixty  miles  in 
diameter. 

645.  What  is  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon   the 
human  body? 

Estimating  the  surface  of  man's  bddy  to  be  equal  to  fifteen 
square  feet,  he  sustains  an  atmospheric  pressure  of  32,4001bs.,  or 
nearly  fourteen  tons  and  a-half.  The  mjre  variation  of  weight, 


148  THE    EEASON   WHY. 


'  I  therefore  so  run,  not  as  uncertainly ;  so  fight  I,  not  as  one  that  beateth  the 
air." — CORINTH,  ix. 


arising  out  of  the  changes  in  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  may 
amount  to  as  much  as  a  ton  and  a-half. 

646.  Why  does  not  man  feel  this  pressure  ? 

Because  the  diffusion  of  air  which,  surrounding  him  in  every 
direction,  and  acting  upon  the  internal  as  well  as  the  external 
surfaces  of  his  body,  and  probably  surrounding  every  atom  of  his 
frame,  establishes  an  equilibrium,  in  which  every  degree  of  pressure 
counteracts  and  sustains  itself. 

647.  What  is  the  weight  of  air  relative  to  that  of  water  ? 

A  cubic  foot  of  air  weighs  only  523  grains,  a  little  more  than  an 
ounce ;  a  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  one  thousand  ounces. 

648.  What  is  the  greatest  height  in  the  atmosphere  which 
any  human  being  has  ever  reached  ? 

M.  Gay  Lussac,  in  the  year  1804,  ascended  to  the  height  of 
23,000  feet, 

649.  What  is  a  vacuum  ? 

A  vacuum  is  a  space  devoid  of  matter.  The  term  is  generally 
applied  to  those  instances  in  which  air  is  drawn  from  within  an 
air-tight  vessel. 

(550.     Is  it  possible  to  form  a  perfect  vacuum  ? 

It  is  probably  impossible  to  do  so,  even  with  the  most  powerful 
instruments — some  portion  of  air  would  remain,  but  in  so  thin  a 
a  form  that  it  would  be  imperceptible. 

651.  Why  does  the  depression  of  a  pump-handle  cause  the 
water  to  flow  ? 

Because  the  putting  down  of  the  handle  lifts  up  the  piston  with 
its  valve  closed,  thereby  tending  to  produce  a  vacuum  ;  but  the 
pressure  of  the  air  upon  the  water  not  contained  in  the  pump, 
forces  more  water  up  into  the  part  where  a  vacuum  would 
otherwise  be  formed.  Then,  when  the  handle  is  raised,  and  the 
piston  forced  downwards,  the  valve  opens,  and  the  water  rushes 
through. 

There  is  &  second  valve,  below  the  piston,  which  closes  with  thi 


-,.. 

THE   REASON    WHY.  149 


"  The  wind  bloweth  where  it  listeth,  and  thou  hearest  the  sound  thereof,  but 

canst  not  tell  whence  it  cometh,  and  whither  it  goeth :  so  is  every  one 

that  is  born  of  the  Spirit."— JOHN  n.,  in. 

downward  movement,  to  prevent  the  water  from  rushing  back 
again. 

652.  How  high  will  atmospheric  pressure  raise  water  in 
the  lore  of  a  pump  ? 

It  will  raise  water  to  an  elevation  of  thirty  feet  above  its  level. 

653.  Why  will  it  raise  water  to  an  elevation  of  thirty- 
feet? 

Because  a  column  of  water  of  thirty  feet  high,  nearly  balances  the 
weight  of  a  column  of  air  of  equal  surface,  extending  to  the  whole 
height  of  the  atmosphere.  When,  therefore,  water  is  elevated  to  the 
height  of  thirty  feet,  the  power  of  the  pump  is  enfeebled,  as  the  air 
and  the  water  balance  each  oilier.  .$> •• 

654.  How  is  water  raised  to  a  greater  elevation  when  it  is 
required  ? 

By  mechanical  contrivances,  by  which  the  water  is  forced  to  a 
greater  elevation. 

655.  Why  does  water  run  through  the  lent  tube  called  a 
syphon  ? 

Because  the  atmospheric  pressure  upon  the  water  on  the  outside 
of  the  syphon  forces  it  into  the  tube  as  fast  as  the  syphon  empties 
itself  through  its  longer  arm. 

656.  Why  does  water  run  through  the  longer  arm  of  the 
si/phon  ? 

Because  the  weight  of  the  water  in  the  longer  arm  of  the  syphon 
is  greater  than  that  in  the  shorter ;  therefore  it  runs  out  by  its 
own  gravity.  And,  as  in  running  out,  it  creates  a  tendency 
towards,  a  vacuum,  the  pressure  of  the  outer  air  comes  into 
operation,  and  forces  the  water  through  the  tube. 

657.  Why  does  water  issue  from  the  earth  in  springs  ? 
Some  springs   are  caused   by   natural  syphons  formed  in  the 

fissures  of  rocks,  which,  communicating  with  bodies  of  water,  are 
continually  filled  by  atmospheric  pressure,  tir.d  therefore  convey 
streams  of  water  to  the  point  where  they  are  set  free. 


150  THE  BEASON   WHY. 

w  Ascribe  ye  strength  unto  God :  his  excellency  is  over  Israel,  and  his  strength 
is  in  the  clouds." — PSAXM  LVIII. 


658.  Why,  if  a  wine  glass  is  filled  with  water,  and  a  card 
laid  upon  it,  and  the  whole  inverted,  will  the  water  remain  in 
the  glass? 

Because  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  surface  of  the 
card  counteracts  the  weight  of  the  water. 

659.  What  has  the  card  to  do  toith  the  experiment  ? 

It  forms  a  base  upon  which  the  water  may  rest,  while  the  glass 
is  being  inverted ;  and  it  prevents  the  air  from  acting  upon  the 
fluidity  of  the  water,  and  forcing  it  out  of  the  glass. 

660.  Why  will  not  leer  run  out  of  the  tap  of  a  cask  until 
a  spile  has  been  driven  in  at  the  top  ? 

Because  the  pressure  of  the  air  upon  the  opening  of  the  tap 
counteracts  the  weight  of  the  beer.  But  when  the  spile  is  driven 
in,  the  air  enters  at  the  top,  and  counteracts  its  own  pressure  at 
the  bottom. 

661.  Why  does  a  cup  in  a  pie  become  filled  with  juice  ? 
Because  the  heat  expands  the  air,  and  drives  nearly  all  of  it  out 

of  the  cup.  When  the  pie  is  taken  out  of  the  oven,  and  begins  to 
cool,  air  cannot  get  into  the  cup  again,  because  its  edges  are 
surrounded  by  juice.  A  partial  vacuum,  therefore,  exists  within 
the  cup,  and  the  pressure  of  the  external  air  forces  the  juice  into  it. 

662.  Does  the  cup  prevent  the  juice  from  boiling  over  ? 
No.     So  long  as  the  heat  exists,  the  cup  remains  empty  ;  and  as 

it  occupies  space,  the  air  is  driven  out  of  it,  into  the  pie,  it  rather 
tends  to  force  the  juice  over  the  sides  of  the  dish.  It  is  only  when 
cooling  that  the  juice  enters  the  cup. 

663.  Wliy  can  flies  walk  on  the  ceiling  ? 

Because  their  feet  are  so  formed  that  they  can  form  a  vacuum, 
under  them ;  their  bodies  are  therefore  sustained  in  opposition  t<? 
gravitation  by  atmospheric  pressure. 

664.  How    did  Mr.  Sands  perform  the  feat  of  walking 
across  the  ceiling  ? 

By  having  large  discs  of  wet  leather  attached  to  his  feet,  so  that 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  151 


"And  God  made  a  wind  to  pass  over  the  earth."— GENESIS  vin. 

when  they  were  placed  upon  a  smooth  surface,  the  air  was  excluded, 
and  when  he  allowed  his  weight  to  act  upon  one  of  the  discs,  it 
formed  a  hollow  cup  and  a  vacuum.  By  forming  a  vacuum  of  only 
twelve  square  inches  he  gained  a  pressure  of  ISOlbs. ;  this  being 
more  than  his  weight  he  could  accomplish  the  feat  with  no 
other  difficulty  than  that  of  remaining  in  an  inverted  position. 
The  air  was  admitted  underneath  the  discs  by  valves,  which  were 
closed  by  springs,  which  being  pressed  by  the  heels  of  the 
performer,  let  in  the  air,  and  set  the  feet  free. 

665.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  strike  limpets  from  rocks  ? 

Because  they  have  the  means  of  forming  a  vacuum  under  their 
shells,  and  are  pressed  on  to  the  rocks  by  the  weight  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. 

666.  Why  can  snails  move  over  plants  in  an  inverted 
position  ? 

Because  they  form  a  vacuum  with  the  smooth  and  moist  surfaces 
of  their  bodies,  and  are  supported  by  atmospheric  pressure. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

666 .  What  is  wind? 

Wind  is  air  in  motion.     (See  234.) 

667.  What  are  the  velocities  of  winds  ? 

A  breeze  travels  ten  feet  in  a  second ;  a  light  gale,  sixteen  feet  in 
a  second;  a  stiff  gale,  twenty -four  feet  in  a  second;  a  violent 
squall,  thirty -five  feet  in  a  second ;  storm  wind,  from  forty-three 
to  fifty -four  in  a  second ;  hurricane  of  the  temperate  zone,  sixty 
feet  in  a  second ;  hurricane  of  the  torrid  zone,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  to  three  hundred  feet  in  a  second.  When  wind  flies  at  one 
mile  an  hour,  it  is  scarcely  perceptible.  When  its  velocity  is  one 
hundred  miles  an  hour,  it  tears  up  trees,  and  devastates  its  track. 

668.  What  are  trcde  winds  ? 


152  THE   SEASON    WHY. 


"  They  shall  be  as  the  morning  clcv  A,  and  as  the  early  dew  that  passeth  away, 

as  the  chaff  that  is  driven  with  the  whirlwind  out  of  the  floor,  and  as 

the  smoke  out  of  the  chimney."— HOSEA  xni. 

Trade  winds  are  vast  currents  of  air,  which  sweep  round  tJio 
globe  over  a  belt  of  some  12,000  miles  in  width. 

669.  What  is  the  cause  oftrale  ivinds  ? 

The  air  over  the  tropical  regions  becomes  heated  and  ascends  ;  it 
then  diverges  in  two  high  currents,  one  towards  the  north,  and  the 
other  towards  the  south  pole,  where,  being  cooled,  it  again  descends, 
and  returns  towards  the  equator  to  replace  the  air  as  it  ascends 
therefrom.  There  is,  therefore,  a  constant  revolution  of  vast  cur- 
rents of  air  between  the  tropics  and  the  poles,  producing  north  and 
south  winds. 

670.  Why   do  the  trade  winds  How  from  east  to   west, 
though,  in  their  origin,  their  direction  is  from  north  to  south 
and  from  south  to  north  ? 

Because,  as  the  north  and  south  winds  blow  towards  the  equator, 
they  are  affected  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth  from  west  to  east. 
As  the  two  winds  from  the  poles  approach  the  equator,  they  are 
gradually  diverted  from  their  northerly  and  southerly  course,  to  an 
easterly  direction,  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth. 

671.  Why  is  there  a  prevalence  of  calms  at  the  equator? 
Because,  as  the  north  and  the  south  winds  move  towards  the 

equator,  they  drive  before  them  volumes  of  atmosphere,  which, 
meeting  in  opposite  directions,  resist  and  counterpoise  each  other, 
and  abide  in  a  state  of  stillness  between  the  north  and  south- 
easterly winds,  one  on  the  north  and  the  other  on  the  south  of  the 
equator. 

672.  What  are  monsoons  ? 

Monsoons  are  periodical  winds  which  blow  at  a  given  period  of 
the  year  from  one  quarter  of  the  compass,  and  in  another  period  of 
the  year  from  the  opposite  quarter  of  the  compass. 

673.  What  is  the  cause  of  monsoons  ? 

Monsoons  are  caused  by  changes  in  the  position  of  the  sun. 
When  the  sun  is  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  it  produces  a  north- 
east wind,  and  when  it  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  a  north-west 
wind.  The  north-east  monsoon  blows  from  November  to  March, 


THE    SEASON    WHY.  153 

"  He  shall  blow  upon  them  and  they  shall  wither,  and  the  whirlwind  shall  take 
them  away  as  stubble."— ISAIAH  XL. 

and  the  south-west  monsoon  from  the  end  of  April  to  the  middle 
of  October.  The  region  of  moonsoons  lies  a  little  to  the  north  of 
the  northern  border  of  the  trade  wind,  and  they  blow  with  the 
greatest  force,  and  with  most  regularity,  between  the  eastern  coast 
of  Africa  and  Hindustan. 

674.  What  determines  the  character  of  winds  ? 

The  character  of  winds  is  influenced  by  the  condition  of  the 
surfaces  over  which  they  blow.  Winds  blowing  over  dry  and  arid 
plains  and  deserts  are  dry  and  hot.  Winds  blowing  across  snow- 
capped mountains  and  regions  of  ice  are  cold.  Winds  that  cross 
oceans  are  wet ;  and  those  that  cross  extensive  continents  are  dry. 

675.  What  winds  are  most  prevalent  in  England  ? 

In  England  out  of  a  thousand  days,  north  winds  prevail  in  82 ; 
north-east,  111 ;  east,  99 ;  south-east,  81 ;  south,  111  j  south-west, 
225  ;  west,  171 ;  north-west,  120. 

676.  What  is  the  cause  of  storms? 

Storms  result  from  violent  commotions  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
are  chiefly  the  result  of  extreme  changes  of  temperature. 

The  magnetic  state  of  the  earth,  and  the  electrical  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  also  materially  influence  the  phenomena  of  sto,  ms. 

By  some  persons  the  theory  is  entertained  that  storms  result  from 
various  winds  rushing  info  a  centre  in  which  the  atmosphere  has 
become  extremely  condensed.  According  to  this  theory,  a  storm  is 
a  mighty  whirlwind. 

A.  most  violent  hurricane  occurred  in  1780,  which  destroyed  Lord  Rodney's 
fleet,  and  a  vast  number  of  merchant  ships.  It  is  said  to  have  killed  9,000 
persons  in  Martinique  alone,  and  6,000  in  St.  Lucia.  The  town  of  St.  Pierre  in 
Martinique  was  totally  destroyed ;  and  only  fourteen  houses  in  the  town  of 
Kingston,  in  St.  Vincent,  were  left  uninjured. 

677.  WJiy  do  the  most  violent  storms  occur  in  and  near 
the  tropics  ? 

Because  there  the  temperature  is  very  high,  and  the  cold  currents 
of  air  rushing  towards  the  equator  from  the  poles,  causes  great 
atmospheric  disturbance 

678.  What  are  whirlwinds  ? 

7* 


154  THE   REASON   WHY. 


( Out  of  the  south  cometh  the  whirlwind ;  and  cold  out  of  the  north."— 
JOB  xxxvu. 


Whirlwinds  are  produced  by  violent  and  contrary  currents  meeting 
and  striking  upon  each  other,  producing-  a  circular  motion.  They 
generally  occur  after  long  calms,  attended  by  much  heat. 

Whirlwinds  occurring  at  sea,  or  over  the  surface  of  water,  some- 
times put  the  water  in  motion,  and  as  the  wind  rises  upwards  it 
lifts  with  it  a  whirling  mass  of  water,  producing  a  water  spout. 


Pig.  19. — A  WATER  SPOUT. 

679.  Wliy  does  the  chimney  smoke  when  the  fire  is  first 
lighted? 

Because  the  air  in  the  chimney  is  of  the  same  temperature  as  that 
in  the  room,  and  therefore  will  not  ascend. 

680.  Why  does  the  smoking  (into  the  room)  cease,  after  the 
fire  has  been  lighted  a  little  while  ? 

Because  the  air  in  the  chimney,  being  warmed  by  the  fire 
beneath,  becomes  lighter  and  ascends  rapidly. 

681.  Why  does  a  long  chimney  create  a  greater  draught 
than  a  short  one  ? 

Because  the  short  chimney  contains  less  air  than  the  long  one  -, 
there  is,  consequently,  less  difference  of  weight  between  the  warm 


THE    REASON   WHY.  155 


1  And,  lo,  the  smoke  of  the  country  went  up  as  the  smoke  of  a  furnace."— 
GEN.  Xix. 


air  of  the  short  chimney  and  the  external  air ;  it  therefore  has  not 
so  great  an  ascensive  power. 

682.  Why  does  smoke  issue  in  folds  and  curls  ? 

Because  it  is  pressed  upon  by  the  cold  air  which  always  rushes 
towards  a  rarer  atmosphere.  It  thus  illustrates  the  development 
of  storms. 

683.  Why  do   some  chimneys  smoke  when  the  doors  and 
windoivs  are  closed? 

Because  the  draught  of  air  is  not  sufficient  to  supply  the  wants 
of  the  fire,  and  enable  it  to  create  an  upward  current. 

684.  Wliat  is  the  best  method  of  conveying  air  to  fires  ? 

Tubes  builc  in  the  walls,  communicating  with  the  outer  air,  and 
terminating  underneath  the  grates. 

685.  Why  is  this  the  lest  method  of  ventilation  ? 

Because  doors  and  windows  may  then  be  made  air-tight,  and 
draughts  across  rooms  be  prevented. 

686.  Why  do  chimneys  that  stand  under  elevated  objects, 
such  as  hills,  trees,  and  high  buildings,  smoke  ? 

Because  the  wind,  striking  against  the  elevated  object,  flies 
back,  and  a  part  of  it  rushes  downward. 

687.  Why  do  sooty  chimneys  smoke  ? 

Because  the  accumulation  of  the  soot  diminishes  the  size  of  the 
flue,  and  lessens  the  ascensive  power  of  the  draught,  by  reducing 
the  quantity  vtwarm.  air.  It  also  obstructs  the  motion  of  the  air, 
by  the  roughness  of  its  surface. 

688.  Why  do  chimneys  smoke  in  damp  and  gusty  weather  ? 

Because  the  ascending  air  is  suddenly  chilled  by  gusts  of  damp 
and  cold  air,  and  driven  down  the  chimney. 


156  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


'  Remember  that  thou  magnify  his  work,  which  men  behold.    Every  man  may 
see  it ;  mau  may  behold  it  afar  off."— JOB  xxxvi. 


689.  Why  does-  smoke  ascend  in  a  straight  line  in  mild 
andjine  weather  ? 

Because  the  air  is  still,  and  being  dry  and  warm  it  does  not  chill 
the  smoke,  nor  drive  it  out  of  its  course. 

600.   Why  do  the  wings  of  wind-mills  turn  round? 

Because  the  wind,  striking  at  an  angle  upon  the  wings,  forces 
them  aside ;  and  as  there  are  four  wings  all  upon  the  same  angle, 
and  fixed  upon  the  same  centre,  the  oblique  pressure  of  the  wind 
causes  the  centre  to  rotate. 

There  is  a  world  of  miniature  phenomena  which  has  never  been  fully  recog- 
nised,  in  which  we  may  see  the  mightier  works  of  nature  pleasingly  and  truth- 
fully illustrated. 

When  the  wind  blows  into  the  corner  of  a  street,  and  whirling  around,  catches 
straw,  dust,  and  feathers  in  its  arms,  and  then  wheels  away,  flinging  the 
troubled  atoms  in  all  directions, — it  is  a  miniature  of  the  mightier  whirlwind, 
which  wrecks  ships,  uproots  trees,  and  levels  houses  with  the  earth. 

When  a  cloud  of  dust,  on  a  hot  summer's  day,  rises  and  flies  along  the  thirsty 
road,  making  the  passenger  close  his  eyelids,  and  dusting  the  leaves  of  wayside 
vegetation,— it  is  a  miniature  of  the  terrible  simoom,  which  blows  from  the 
desert  sands,  scattering  death  and  devastation  in  its  track. 

When  steam  issues  from  the  tea-urn,  and  becomes  condensed  in  minute  drops 
upon  the  window-pane, — the  miniature  is  of  the  earth's  heat,  evaporating  the 
waters,  and  the  cold  air  of  night  condensing  the  vapours  into  dew. 

When  grass  and  corn  bend  before  the  wind,  and  are  beaten  down  by  its  force  ; 
when  the  pond  forgets  its  calm,  and  rises  in  troubled  waves,  casting  the  flotilla 
of  natural  boats  that  move  upon  its  surface,  in  rude  disorder  upon  its  wii.dward 
shore,— the  little  storm  is  but  a  miniature  of  those  great  hurricanes  which 
wrecked  a  fleet  in  the  Black  Sea,  and  levelled  the  encampments  of  a  mighty 
army. 

When  the  snow  that  has  gathered  upon  the  house-top,  warming  beneath  the 
smr.es  of  the  sun,  slips  from  its  bed,  and  drops  in  accumulated  heaps  from  the 
roof,— it  is  a  miniature  of  those  terrible  avalanches  which  in  the  Pyrenees  bury 
villages  in  their  icy  pall,  and  doom  mau  and  beast  to  death. 

When  the  rivulet  hurries  on  its  course,  and  meeting  with  obstructions,  leaps 
over  them  in  mimic  wrath,  overturning  some  little  raft  upon  which,  perchance, 
a  weary  fly  has  alighted, — it  is  a  miniature  of  .those  rapids  on  whose  banks  the 
hippopotamus  and  the  alligator  yet  live ;  and  where,  though  rarely,  man  may  be 
seen  directing  his  raft  over  the  troubled  current,  amid  the  rush  of  debris  from 
forests  unexplored. 

And  when,  in  a  basin  of  the  rivulet,  two  opposing  currents  meet,  and  form  a 
little  vortex  into  which  insect  life  and  vegetable  fragments  coming  within  the 


THE   BEASON    WHY.  157 


1  Can  any  understand  the  spreadings  of  the  clouds,  or  the  uoise  of  his 
tabernacle  ?"— JOB  xxxvi. 


sphere  of  its  influence  are  drawn,— it  is  a  miniature  of  the  roaring  whirlpool, 
or  the  wilder  maelstrom  of  the  Norwegian  seas. 

Nature  rehearses  all  her  parts  in  mild  whispers ;  and  for  every  picture  that 
she  paints,  she  places  a  first  study  upon  the  canvas.  Man  need  not  go  into  the 
heart  of  her  terrors  to  understand  their  laws.  Many  an  unknown  Humboldt, 
sitting  by  the  river's  side,  may  rejoice  in  the  "  aspects  of  nature,"  and  share  the 
bliss  of  knowledge  with  the  great  philosopher. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

691.  W  hat  is  a  barometer  ? 

A  barometer  is  an  instrument  which  indicates  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  which  takes  its  name  from  two  Greek  words 
signifying  measurer  of  weight. 

692.  Why  does  a  barometer  indicate  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  ? 

Because  it  consists  of  a  tube  containing  quicksilver ,  closed  at  one 
cud  and  open  at  the  other,  so  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  upon  the 
open  end  balances  the  weight  of  the  column  of  mercury  (quick- 
silver;, and  when  the  pressure  of  the  air  upon  the  open  surface  of 
the  mercury  increases  or  decreases,  the  mercury  rises  or  falls  in 
response  thereto. 

693.  Why  is  a  barometer  called  also  a  "  weather-glass  ?" 

Because  changes  in  the  weather  are  generally  preceded  by  altera- 
tions in  the  atmospheric  pressure.  But  we  cannot  perceive  those 
changes  as  they  gradually  occur;  the  alteration  in  the  height  of  the 
oolumn  of  mercury,  therefore,  enables  us  to  know  that  atmospheric 
changes  are  taking  place,  and,  by  observation,  we  are  enabled  to 
determine  certain  rules  by  which  the  state  of  the  weather  may  le 
foretold  with  considerable  probability. 

694.  Why  are  barometers  constructed  with  circular  dials, 
and  an  index  to  denote  changes  ? 

Because  that  is  a  convenient  mechanical  arrangement,  by  which 


158 


THE   REASON    WHY. 


"  Fair  weather  cometh  out  of  the  north  :  with  God  is  terrible  majesty."— 
JOB  xxxvu. 


the  alterations  of  the  relative  pressures  of  the  air  and  the  mercury 
;u-f  more  clearly  denoted  than  ty  an  inspection  of  the  mercury 

its,  If. 


Fifc.  20.— BAROMETER. 


Fig.  21.— TTTBE  OF  BAROMETER, 
WHEEL,  AND  PULLET. 


635.  Why  does  the  hand  of  the  weather  dial  change  its 
position  when  the  column  of  mercury  rises  or  falls  ? 

Because  a  weight,  which  floats  upon  the  open  surface  of  the 
mercury,  is  attached  to  a  string,  having  a  nearly  equal  weight  at 
the  other  extremity ;  the  string  is  laid  over  a  revolving  pivot  to 
which  the  hand  is  fixed,  and  the  friction  of  the  string  turns  the 
hand,  as  the  mercury  rises  or  falls. 


THE   BEASON    WI1Y.  159 


"  Thou  visi  test  the  earth,  and  waterest  it:  thou  greatly  en  richest  it  with  the 

river  of  God,  which  is  full  of  water :  thou  preparest  them  corn,  when 

thou  hast  so  provided  for  it."— PSAUM;  LXV. 


096.  Why  does  tapping  the  face  of  the  barometer  sometimes 
cause  the  hand  to  move  ? 

Because  the  weight  on  the  surface  of  the  mercury  frequently 
leans  against  the  sides  of  the  tube,  and  does  not  move  freely. 
And,  also,  the  mercury  clings  to  the  sides  of  the  tube  by  capillary 
attraction;  therefore,  tapping  on  the  face  of  the  barometer  sets  the 
weight  free,  and  overcomes  the  attraction  which  impedes  the  rise  or 
fall  of  the  mercury. 

Fig.  21  illustrates  the  mechanism  at  the  back  of  the  barometer.  A  is  a 
glass  tube ;  between  A  and  E  there  exists  a  vacuum,  caused  by  the  weight  of  the 
mercury  pressing  downwards.  This  space  being  a  vacuum,  makes  the 
barometrical  column  more  sensitive,  as  there  is  no  internal  force  to  resist  or 
modify  the  effects  of  the  external  pressure.  E  represents  the  height  of  the 
column  of  mercury ;  C  the  open  end  of  the  tube ;  F  the  weight  resting  on  the 
surface  of  the  mercury ;  P  the  pivot  over  which  the  string  passes,  and  upon 
which  the  hand  turns :  "W  the  weight  which  forms  the  pulley  with  the  weight  F. 

697.  Which  is  the  heavier,  dry  or  vaporised  air  ? 
Dry  air  is  heavier  than  air  impregnated  with  vapours. 

698.  Why  is  dry  air  heavier  than  moist  air  ? 

Because  of  the  extreme  tenuity  of  watery  $ a/pours,  the  density 
of  which  is  less  than  that  of  atmospheric  air. 

699.  Why  does  the  fall  of  the  barometer  denote  the  approach 
of  rain  ? 

Because  it  shows  that  as  the  air  cannot  support  the  full  weight 
of  the  column  of  mercury,  the  atmosphere  must  be  thin  with  watery 
vapours. 

The  fall  of  the  mercury  in  the  long  arm  of  the  tube  would  cause  the  weight  F 
to  be  pressed  upwards.  This  would  release  the  string  to  which  the  weight  \V 
is  attached ;  it  would,  therefore,  fall,  and  turn  the  hand  down  to  Rain,  or  Much 
Rain. 

700.  Why  does  the  rise  of  the  barometer  denote  the  approach 
of  fine  weather  ? 

Because  the  external  air  becoming  dense,  and  free  from  highly 
elastic  vapours,  presses  with  increased  force  upon  the  mercury  upon 
which  the  weight  F  floats ;  that  weight,  therefore,  sinks  in  the 
short  tube  as  the  mercury  rises  in  the  long  one,  and  in  sinking 
turns  the  hand  to  Change,  Fair,  &c. 


160 


M  He  caused  an  east  wind  to  blow  in  the  heaven ;  and  by  his  power  he  brought 
in  the  south  wind."— PSALM  xxxvur. 


701.  Why  does  the  barometer  enable  us  to  calculate  the 
height  of  mountains  ? 

Because,  as  the  barometer  is  carried  up  a  mountain,  there  is  a 
less  depth  of  atmosphere  above  to  press  upon  the  mercury ;  it 
therefore  fulls,  and  by  comparing  various  observations,  it  has  been 
found  practicable  to  calculate  the  height  of  mountains  by  the 
fall  of  the  mercury  in  a  barometer. 

7u2.  To  ivhat  extent  of  variation  is  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere  liable  ? 

It  may  vary  as  much  as  a  pound  and  a  half  to  the  square 
inch  at  the  level  of  the  sea. 

703.  When  does  the  barometer  stand  highest  ? 

When  there  is  a  duration  of  frost,  or  when  north-easterly  winds 
prevail. 

704.  Why  does  the  barometer  stand  highest  at  these  times  ? 
Because  the  atmosphere  is  exceedingly  dry  and  dense,  and  fully 

balances  the  weight  of  the  column  of  mercury. 

705.  When  does  the  barometer  stand  lowest  ? 

When  a  thaw  follows  a  long  frost ;  or  when  south-west  winds 
prevail. 

706.  Why  does  the  barometer  stand  lowest  at  those  times  ? 
Because  much  moisture  exists  in  the  air,  by  which  it  is  rendered 

less  dense  and  heavy. 

'     707.    What  effect  has  heat  upon  the  barometer  ? 

It  causes  the  mercury  to  fall,  by  evaporating  moisture  into  the 
air. 

708.   What  effect  has  cold  upon  the  barometer  ? 
It  causes  the  mercury  to  rise,  by  checking  evaporation,  and 
increasing  the  density  of  the  air. 

In  noting  barometrical  indications,  more  attention  should  be  paid  to  tho 
tendency  of  the  mercury  at  the  time  of  the  observation,  than  to  the  actual 
state  of  the  column,  whether  it  stands  high  or  low.  The  following  nUes  of 
barometic  «eading  are  given  as  generally  accurate,  but  liable  to  exceptions  :— 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  161 


1  For  so  the  Lord  said  unto  me,  I  will  take  my  rest,  and  I  will  consider  in  my 

dwelling  place  like  a  clear  heat  upon  herbs,  and  like  a  cloud  of  dew 

in  the  heat  of  harvest." — ISAIAH  xvm. 


Fair  weather  indicated  by  the  rise  of  the  mercury. 

Foul  weatlier  by  the  fall  of  the  mercury. 

Thunder,  indicated  by  the  fall  of  th<>  mercury  in  sultry  weather. 

Cold,  indicated  by  the  rise  of  the  mercury  in  spring,  autumn,  and  winter. 

Heat,  by  ihefall  of  the  mercury  in  summer  and  autumn. 

Frost,  indicated  by  the  rise  of  the  mercury  in  winter. 

Thaw,  by  the  fall  of  the  mercury  during  a  frost. 

Continued  bad  weather,  when  the  fall  of  the  mercury  has  been  gradual 
through  several  fine  days. 

Continued  fine  weather,  when  the  rise  of  the  mercury  has  been  gradual 
through  several  foui  days. 

Bad  weather  of  short  duration,  when  it  sets  in  quickly. 

Fine  weather  of  short  duration,  when  it  sets  in  quickly. 

Changeable  weather,  when  an  extreme  change  has  suddenly  set  in. 

Wind,  indicated  by  a  rapid  rise  or  fall  unattended  by  a»cliange  of  temperature. 

The  mercury  rising,  and  the  air  becoming  cooler,  promises  fine  weather ;  but 
the  mercury  rising,  and  the  air  becoming  warmer,  the  weather  will  be 
changeable. 

If  the  top  of  the  column  of  mercury  appears  convex,  or  curved  upwards,  it  is 
an  additional  proof  that  the  mercury  is  rising.  Expect  fine  weather. 

If  the  top  of  the  column  is  concave,  or  curved  downwards,  it  is  an  additional 
proof  that  the  mercury  is  falling.  Expect  bad  weather. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

709.  What  is  the  thermometer  ? 

The  thermometer  is  an  instrument  in  which  mercury  is  employed 
to  indicate  degrees  of  heat.  Its  name  is  derived  from  two  Greek 
words,  meaning  heat  measurer. 

710.  Why  does  mercury  indicate  degrees  of  heat? 

Because  it  expands  readily  with  heat,  and  contracts  with  cold ; 
and  as  it  passes  freely  through  small  tubes,  it  is  the  most  convenient 
medium  for  indicating  changes  of  temperature. 

711.  Why  are  there  Reaumur's  Thermometers  and  Fahren- 
heit's Thermometers  ? 

Because  their  inventors,  after  whom  they  are  named,  adopted  a 
different  system  of  notation,  or  thermometrical  marlcs ;  and  as 
their  thermometers  have  been  adopted  by  various  countries  and 
authors,  it  is  now  diLcw..  1  dispense  with  either  of  them. 


162 


THE   EEASON    WHY. 


When  ye  see  a  cloud  rise  out  of  the  west  straightway  ye  say,  There  cometh  a 

shower  ;  and  so  it  is.    And  when  ye  see  the  south  wind  blow,  ye  say 

there  will  be  heat ;  and  it  cometh  to  pass."— LUKE  xui. 


THERMOMETER. 

Reaumtir.  Fahrenheit. 


Fig.  22.— THE   THERMOMETERS  OP 

REAUMUR      AND      FAHRENHEIT 
COMPARED. 


We  have  combined  the  two  (see  Fig.  22.) 
The  diagram  will,  we  have  no  doubt,  prove 
exceedingly  useful  to  scientific  readers 
and  experimentalists.  There  is  also 
another  system  of  notation,  adopted  by 
the  French,  called  the  centigrade,  but  it 
is  not  much  referred  to  in  Great  Britain. 
In  the  centigrade  thermometer  0  zero  is 
the  freezing  point,  and  100  the  boiling 
point.  Fahrenheit's  scale  is  generally 
preferred.  Reaumur's  is  mostly  used  in 
Germany.  Of  Fahrenheit's  scale  32  is  the 
freezing  point,  55  is  moderate  heat,  76 
summer  heat  in  Great  Britain,  98  is  blood 
heat,  and  212  is  the  boiling  point.  Mr. 
Wedgwood  has  invented  a  thermometer 
for  testing  high  temperatures,  each  degree 
of  which  answers  to  130  degrees  of  Fahren- 
heit. According  to  his  scale  cast  iron 
melts  at  2,786  deg. ;  fine  gold  at  2,016  deg. ; 
fine  silver  1,873  deg. ;  brass  melts  at  1,8C9 
deg. ;  red  heat  is  visible  by  day  at  980  deg. ; 
lead  melts  61 2  dog. ;  bismuth  melts  476  deg. ; 
tin  melts  442  deg. ;  and  there  is  a  curious 
facj  with  regard  to  the  three  metals,  lead, 
bismuth,  and  tin,  that  if  they  are  mixed 
in  the  proportions  of  5,  8,  and  3  parts 
respectively,  the  mixture  (after  previous 
fusion)  will  melt  at  a  heat  below  that  of 
boiling  water. 

712.  What  is  the  difference 
between  the  thermometer  and  the 
barometer  ? 

In  the  thermometer  the  column 
of  mercury  is  much  smaller  than  in 
the  barometer,  and  is  sealed  from 
the  air ;  while  in  the  barometer  the 
column  of  mercury  is  open  at  one 
end  to  atmospheric  influence. 

713.  Why  does  the  mercury 
in  the  thermometer,  leing  sealed 
up,   indicate  the  external   tem- 
perature ? 


THE    REASON    WHY.  163 


"  Blessed  is  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound :  they  shall  walk,  O  Lord,  in 
the  light  of  thy  countenance." — PSALM  LXXXIX. 


Because  the  heat  passes  through  the  glass,  in  which  the  mercury 
is  enclosed,  and  expanding  or  contracting  the  metal  within  the 
bulb,  causes  the  small  column  above  it  to  rise  or  fall. 

714.  When  does  the  thermometer  vary  most  in  its  indi- 
cation of  natural  temperature  ? 

It  varies  more  in  the  winter  than  in  the  summer  season. 

715.  Why  does  it  vary  more  in  the  winter  than  in  the 
summer  ? 

Because  the  temperature  of  our  climate  differs  more  from  the 
temperature  of  the  torrid  zones  in  the  winter  than  it  does  in  the 
summer,  and  the  inequalities  of  temperature  cause  frequent 
changes  in  the  degree  of  prevailing  heat. 

The  same  remarks  (714, 715,)  apply  to  the  barometer. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

716.  What  is  sound  ? 

Sound  is  an  impression  produced  upon  the  ear  by  vibrations  of 
the  air. 

717.  What  causes  the  air  to  vibrate  and  produce  sounds  ? 
The  atoms  of  elastic  bodies  being  caused  to  vibrate  by  the  appli  - 

cation  of  some  kind  of  force,  the  vibrations  of  those  atoms  are 
imparted  to  the  air,  and  sound  is  produced. 

718.  TTow  do  we  know  that  sounds  are  produced  by  the 
vibrations  of  the  air,  induced  by  the  vibrations  of  the  atoms  of 
bodies  ? 

If  we  take  a  tuning  fork,  and  hold  it  to  the  ear,  we  hear  no  sound. 
If  we  move  it  rapidly  through  the  air,  or  if  we  blow  upon  it,  it  pro- 
duces no  sound ;  but  if  we  strike  it,  a  sound  immediately  occurs  ; 
the  vibration  of  the  fork  may  be  seen,  and  felt  by  the  hand  that  holds 
it ;  and  as  those  vibrations  cease,  the  sound  dies  away. 

719.  How  do  we  know  that  without  air  thr*e  would  be  no 
sound  ? 


164  THE    EEASON   WHY. 

"And  even  things  without  life  giving  sound,  whether  pipe  or  harp,  except  they 
give  a  distinction  in  the  sounds,  how  shall  it  be  known  what  is 
piped  or  harped."— COEINTH.  xiv. 

Because  if  a  tuning  fork  were  to  be  struck  in  a  vacuum  (as  under 
the  receiver  of  an  air  pump)  -no  sound  would  be  heard,  although 
the  vibrations  of  the  fork  could  be  distinctly  seen. 

720.  How  are  the  vibrations  of  sonorous  bodies  imparted  to 
the  air  ? 

When  a  bell  is  struck,  the  force  of  the  blow  gives  an  instant 
agitation  to  all  its  particles.  The  air  around  the  bell  is  driven  back 
by  the  impulse  of  the  force,  and  thus  a  vibration  of  compression  is 
imparted  to  the  air ;  but  the  air  returns  to  the  bell,  by  its  own 
natural  elasticity,  thus  producing  a  vibration  of  expansion — when  it 
is  again  struck,  and  thus  successive  vibrations  of  compression  and 
expansion  are  transmitted  through  the  air. 

721.  How  rapidly  are  these  vibrations  transmitted  through 
the  air  ? 

They  travel  at  a  rate  of  rather  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in 
a  second,  or  twelve  miles  and  three-fourths  in  a  minute. 

722.  Do  all  sounds  travel  at  the  same  rate  ? 

All  sounds,  whether  strong  or  weak,  high  or  low,  musical  or 
discordant,  travel  with  the  same  velocity. 

723.  WTiy  are  bells  and  glasses  stopped  from  ringing  by 
touching  them  with  the  finger  ? 

Because  the  contact  of  the  finger  stops  the  vibration  of  the  atoms 
of  the  metal  and  glass,  which  therefore  cease  to  impart  vibrations 
to  the  air. 

724.  Why  does  a  cracked  bell  give  discordant  sounds  ? 

Because  the  connection  between  the  atoms  of  the  bell  being 
broken,  their  vibrations  are  not  uniform :  some  of  the  atoms  vibrate 
more  intensely  than  the  others  ;  the  vibrations  imparted  to  the  air 
are  therefore  jarring  and  discordant. 

725.  WTiy,  when  we  see  a  gun  fired  at  a  distance,  do  we  see 
the  flash  and  smoke,  before  we  hear  the  report  ? 

Because  light,  which  enables  us  to  see,  travels  at  the  velocity  of 


THE    EEASON    W11V.  165 


'  My  heart  maketh  a  noise  in  me :  I  cannot  hold  my  peace,  because  thou  hast 
heard,  O  my  soul,  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  the  alarm  of  war." — JEE.  iv. 


192,000  miles  in  a  second;  while  sound,by  which  we  hear,  travels 
only  at  the  rate  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  a  second. 

726.  Why  does  the  tread  of  soldiers,  when  marching  in 
long  ranks,  appear  to  be  irregular  ? 

Because  the  sounds  proceeding  frond  different  distances,  reach 
our  ears  in  varying  periods  of  time. 

727.  What  are  the  numbers  of  vibrations  in  a  second 
that  produce  the  various  musical  sounds  ? 

C  or  Do,  480  vibrations  in  a  second ;  B  or  Si,  450  vibrations ;  A 
or  La,  400  vibrations ;  G  or  Sol,  360  vibrations ;  F  or  Pa,  320 
vibrations ;  E  or  Mi,  300  vibrations ;  D  or  Re,  270  vibrations ;  C  or 
Do,  240  vibrations.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  more  rapid  the 
vibrations,  the  higher  the  note,  and  vice  versa. 

728.  Why  does  the  length  of  a  wire  or  string  determine 
the  sound  that  it  produces  ? 

Because  the  shorter  the  string  the  more  rapid  are  its  vibrations 
when  struck. 

729.  Why  does  the  tension  of  a  wire  or  string  affect  its 

vibrations  ? 

Because  when  the  string  or  wire  is  tight,  a  touch  communicates 
vibrations  to  all  its  particles ;  but  when  it  is  loose  the  vibrations 
are  imperfectly  communicated. 

730.  Why  are  some  notes  low  and  solemn,  and  others  high 
and  quick  ? 

Because  the  vibrations  of  musical  strings  vary  from  32  vibrations 
in  a  second,  which  produces  a  soft  and  deep  bass,  to  15,00(> 
vibrations  in  a  second,  which  produces  the  sharpest  treble  note. 

731.  Why  can  our  voices  le  heard  at  a  greater  distance 
when  we  speak  through  tubes  ? 

Because  the  vibrations  are  confined  to  the  air  within  the  tube, 
and  are  not  interfered  with  by  other  vibrations  or  movements  in 
the  air ;  the  tube  itself  is  also  a  good  conductor  of  sound. 


166  THE    KKASON    WIIY. 


"  And  I  will  cause  the  noise  of  thy  songs  to  cease ;  and  the  sound  of  thy  harps 
shall  no  more  be  heard."— EZEKIEL  xxvi. 


732.  Is  air  a  good  conductor  of  sound  ? 

Air  is  a  good  conductor,  but  water  is  a  better  conductor  than 
air  ;  wood,  metals,  the  earth,  &c.,  are  also  good  conductors. 

733.  Why  can  we  hear  sounds  at  a  greater  distance  on 
water  than  on  land  ? 

For  various  reasons :  because  the  smooth  surface  of  water  is  a 
good  conductor;  because  there  are  fewer  noises,  or  counter 
vibrations,  to  interfere  with  the  transmission  of  sound ;  and  because 
there  are  no  elevated  objects  to  impede  the  progress  of  the 
vibrations. 

734.  Why  do  sea-shells  give  a  murmuring  noise  when  held 
to  the  ear  ? 

Because  what  may  be  called  expended  vibrations  always  exist  in 
air  where  various  sounds  are  occurring.  These  tremblings  of  the 
air  are  received  upon  the  thin  covering  of  the  shell,  and  thus  being 
collected  into  a  focus,  are  transmitted  to  the  ear. 

735.  Why  can  people  in  the  arctic  regions  converse  when 
more  than  a  mile  apart  ? 

Because  there  the  air,  being  cold  and  dense,  is  a  very  good 
conductor ;  and  tlie  smooth  surface  of  the  ice  also  favours  the 
transmission  of  sound. 

736.  Why  do  savages  lay  their  heads  upon  the  earth  to  hear 
the  sounds  ofivild  beasts,  fyc.  ? 

Because  the  earth  is  a  good  conductor  of  sound.  For  this  reason, 
also,  persons  working  under  ground  in  mines,  can  hear  each  other 
digging  at  considerable  distances. 

737.  Why  can  church  clocks  be  heard  striking  much  more 
clearly  at  some  times  than  at  others  ? 

Because  the  dens'ty  of  dry  air  improves  the  sound-conducting 
power  of  the  atmosphere.  The  transmission  of  sounds  is  also 
assisted  by  the  direction  of  the  winds. 

738.  Why  may  the  scratching  of  a  pin  at  one  extremity  of 


THE    REASON    WHY.  167 


The  morniug  is  come  unto  thee,  O  thou  that  dwellest  in  the  land :  the  time  is 
come,  the  day  of  trouble  is  near,  and  not  the  sounding  again  of 
the  mountains."— EZEKIEL  vil. 


a  long  pole  be  heard  by  applying  the   ear  to  the  opposite 
extremity  ? 

Because  wood  is  a  good  conductor  of  sound,  and  its  atoms  are 
susceptible  of  considerable  vibration.  It  is,  therefore,  chosen  in 
numerous  instances  for  the  construction  of  musical  instruments. 

Deaf  persons  have  been  known  to  derive  pleasure  from  music  by  placing  their 
hands  upon  the  wood- work  of  musical  instruments  while  being  played  upon. 

739.  Why  is  the  hearing  of  deaf  persons  assisted  by  ear- 
trumpets  ? 

Because  ear-trumpets  collect  the  vibrations  of  the  air  into  a  focus, 
and  make  the  sounds  produced  thereby  more  intense. 

740.  Why  are  sounding-boards  used  to  improve  the  hearing 
of  congregations  ? 

Because,  being  suspended  over,  and  a  little  behind,  the  speaker, 
they  collect  the  vibrations  of  the  air,  and  reflect  them  towards  the 
congregation. 

741.  What  are  echoes  ? 

Echoes  are  sounds  reflected  by  the  objects  on  which  they  strike. 

742.  Why  do  some  echoes   occur    immediately    after    a 
sound  ? 

Because  the  reflecting  surface  is  very  near  ;  therefore  the  sound 
returns  immediately. 

743.  Why  do  some  echoes  occur  a  considerable  time  after 
a  sound  ? 

Because  they  are  at  a  considerable  distance,  and  the  sound  takes 
time  to  travel  to  it,  and  an  equal  time  to  return. 

744.  Why  do  some  echoes  change  the  tone  and  quality  of 
sound? 

Because  the  reflecting  surface,  having  vibratory  qualities  of  its 
own,  mingles  Us  own  vibrations  with  that  of  the.  sound. 

745.  Wliy  are   there    sometimes    several    echoes   to   one 
sound  ? 


168  THE   SEASON    WHY. 


And  God  said,  Let  the  waters  under  the  heaven  be  gathered  together  unto  one 
place,  and  let  the  dry  land  appear :  and  it  was  so." — GEK.  I. 


Because  there  are  various  reflecting  surfaces,  at  different 
distances,  each  of  which  returns  an  echo. 

746.  Are  sounds  reflected  only  by  distant  objects  ? 
Sounds   are   doubtless   reflected  by  walls  and   ceilings  around 

us.  But  we  do  not  perceive  the  echoes,  because  they  are  so  near 
that  they  occur  at  the  same  moment  with  the  sound.  In  lofty 
buildings,  however,  there  is  frequently  a  double  sound,  making  the 
utterance  of  a  speaker  indistinct.  This  arises  from  the  echo  follow- 
ing very  closely  upon  the  sound. 

747.  Why,  when  we  are  walking  under  an  arch-way  or  a 
tunnel,  do  our  voices  appear  louder  ? 

Because  the  sounds  of  our  voices  are  immediately  reflected.  And 
as  a  gas  reflector  increases  the  intensity  of  light,  so  a  sound 
reflector  will  increase  the  apparent  strength  of  our  voices. 

There  are  many  places  where  remarkable  echoes  occur.  On  the  banks  of  the 
.Rhine,  at  Lurley,  if  the  weather  be  favourable,  the  report  of  a  rifle,  or  the  sound 
of  a  trumpet,  will  be  repeated  at  different  periods,  and  with  various  degrees  of 
strength,  from  crag  to  crag,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river  alternately.  A  similar 
effect  is  heard  in  the  neighbourhood  of  some  of  the  Lochs  in  Scotland.  There 
is  a  place  at  Woodstock,  in  Gloucestershire,  which  is  said  to  echo  a  sound  fifty 
times.  Near  Rosneath,  a  few  miles  from  Glasgow,  there  is  a  spot  where,  if  a 
person  plays  abar  of  music  upon  a  bugle,  the  notes  will  be  repeated  by  an  echo, 
but  a  third  lower;  after  a  short  pause,  another  echo  is  "heard,  again  in  a  lower 
tone ;  then  follows  another  pause,  and  a  third  repetition  follows  in  a  still  lower 
key.  The  effect  is  very  enchanting.  The  whispering  galleries  of  St.  Paul's,  of 
the  cathedral  church  of  Gloucester,  and  of  the  Observatory  of  Paris,  owe  their 
curious  effects  to  those  laws  of  the  reflection  of  sound,  by  which  echoes  are  pro- 
duced ;  but  in  these  cases  the  effect  is  assisted  by  the  elliptical  form  of  the 
edifice,  each  person  being  in  the  focus  of  an  ellipse. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

748.  What  is  water  ? 

Water  is  a  fluid  composed  of  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  to  one  of 
oxygen,  or  eight  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen  to  one  of  hydrnge-n. 
It  is  nearly  colourless  and  transparent. 

749.  Why,  if  a  saucer  of  water  be  exposed  to  the  air,  will 
it  gradually  disappear  ? 


THE   EEASON    WHY. 


"  Behold  there  arisjeth  a  little  cloud  from  the  sea,  of  the  bigness  of  a  man's 

hand.    And  it  came  to  pass  in  the  meantime,  that  the  heaven  was  black 

with  clouds  and  wind,  and  there  was  a  great  rain."— 1  KINGS  xviu. 

Because  water  is  highly  expansive,  and  rises  in  thin  vapour, 
when  in  contact  with  warm  and  dry  air. 

750.  Why  does  steam  issue  from  the  spout  of  a  kettle  ? 
Because  the  heat  of  the  fire  passes  into  the  water,  and  drives 

its  atoms  apart,  making-  those  of  them  that  rise  quickly  to 
the  surface  lighter  than  the  air,  upon  which  they  consequently 
rise. 

751.  Why  does  water  become  solid  -when  it  freezes  ? 

Because  the  latent  heat  of  the  water  passes  away  from  be- 
tween its  atoms  into  the  air ;  the  acorns,  therefore,  draw  closer 
together. 

752.  Why,  if  the  atoms  of  water  draw  closer  together  when 
freezing,  does  ice  expand,  and  occupy  greater  space  than 
water  ? 

Because,  when  the  atoms  of  water  are  congealing,  they  do  not 
form  a  compact  mass,  but  arrange  themselves  in  groups  of  crystal 
points,  which  occupy  greater  space.  Water  contracts  when 
freezing  until  it  sinks  to  40  deg.,  and  then  it  expands  as  ice  is 
formed. 

32  deg.  is  said  to  be  the  freezing  point,  but  it  should  be  called  the  frozen 
point. 

753.  Wliy  does  water  boil  ? 

Because  heat,  entering  into  the  lower  portions  of  the  water, 
expands  it ;  the  heated  portions  are  then  specifically  lighter  than 
those  that  are  cooler ;  the  hot  water  therefore  rises  upward,  and 
forces  the  cooler  water  down. 

754.  What  proportion  of  the  earth's  surface   is  covered 
with  water  ? 

There  are  about  one  hundred  and  forty  seven  millions  of  square 
miles  of  water,  to  forty -nine  and  a  half  millions  of  square  miles  of 
land. 

755.  What  is  the  amount  of  water  pressure  ?  $ .« 

The  pressure  of  the  sea,  at  the  depth  of  1,100  yards,  is  equal  to 
15,000  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch. 
8 


170 


THE    REASON    WHY. 


"But  the  land,  whither  ye  go  to  possess  it,  is  a  land  of  hills  and  valleys,  and 
drinketh  water  of  the  rain  of  heaven." — DETJT.  xi. 


756.  What  element  is  tlie  most  abundant  in  nature  ? 

Oxygen,  which  forms  so  large  a  part  of  water.  Of  animal 
substances,  oxygen  forms  three-fourths  ;  of  vegetable  substances  it 
forms  four-fifths ;  of  mineral  substances  it  forms  one-half;  it 
forms  eight-ninths  of  the  waters  and  one-fifth  of  the  atmosphere  ; 
and  aggregating  the  whole  creation,  from  one- half  to  two-thirds 
consists  of  oxygen. 

757.  In  what  ways  does  man  use  oxygen  ? 

Man  eats,  drinks,  breathes,  and  burns  it,  in  various  proportions 
and  combinations.  It  is  estimated  that  the  human  race  consume  in 
those  various  ways  l,000,000,0001bs.  daily;  that  the  lower  animals 
consume  double  that  amount ;  and  that,  in  the  varied  works  of 
nature,  no  less  than  8,000,000,0001bs.  of  oxygen  are  used  daily. 

758.  Why  does  water  dissolve  various  substances  ? 
Because   the  atoms  of  water  are  very  minute ;  they  therefore1 

permeate  the  pores,  or  spaces,  between  the  atoms  of  those  bodies, 
and  overcoming  their  attraction  Jor  each  other,  cause  them  to 
separate. 

759.  Why  does  hot  water  dissolve  substances  more  readily 
than  cold  ? 

Because  the  heat  assists  to  repel  the  particles  of  the  substance 
undergoing  solution,  and  gives  the  water  a  freer  passage  between 
the  atoms. 

760.  Why  is  pump  water  sometimes  hard  ? 

Because,  in  passing  through  the  earth,  it  has  become  impregnated 
with  mineral  matters,  usually  the  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  lime. 

761.  Why  is  rain  water  soft  ? 

Because  it  is  derived  from  vapours  which,  in  ascending  to  the 
clouds,  could  not  bear  up  the  mineral  waters  with  them.  It 
therefore  became  purified  or  distilled. 

"  762.  Why  do  kettles  become  encrusted  with  stony  de- 
posits ? 

Because  that  portion  of  the  water  which  is  driven  off  in  steam 


THE   REASON   WHY.  171 


"  He  gathereth  the  waters  of  the  sea  together  as  an  heap ;  he  layeth  up  the 
depth  in  storehouses."— PSALM  xxxm. 


leaves  the  mineral  matters  behind ;  they  therefore  form  a  crust 
around  the  sides  of  the  kettle. 

It  is  said  that  if  a  child's  marble  be  placed  in  a  kettle,  it  \pill  attract  the 
earthy  particles,  and  prevent  the  encrusting  of  the  sides  of  the  vessel. 

763.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  wash,  in  hard  water  ? 
Because  the  soap  unites  with  the  mineral  matters  in  the  water, 

and  being  neutralised,  thereby,  cannot  dissolve  the  dirt  which  we 
desire  to  cleanse  away. 

764.  Why  is  the  sea  milt  ? 

Because  salt  is  a  mineral  which  prevails  largely  in  the  earth,  and 
which,  being  very  soluble  in  water,  is  taken  up  by  the  ocean. 

Lakes  and  rivers,  also,  even  those  that  are  considered  fresh,  hold 
in  solution  some  degree  of  saline  matters,  which  they  contribute  to 
the  ocean. 

As,  in  the  evaporations  from  the  sea,  the  salt  remains  in  it,  while 
the  vapours  fall  as  rain,  and  again  wash  the  earth  and  carry  some 
of  its  mineral  properties  to  the  ocean,  the  greater  saltncss  of  the 
sea,  as  compared  with  rivers,  is  accounted  for. 

By  some  persons  the  opinion  is  entertained  that  the  sea  has  been 
gradually  getting  salter  ever  since  the  creation  of  the  world.  This, 
they  say,  arises  from  the  evaporatiou  of  water  free  from  salt,  and  the 
returns  of  the  water  to  the  sea,  taking  with  it  salt  from  the  land. 

765.  What  is  the  estimated  amount  of  salt  in  the  sea  ? 
The  amount  of  common  salt  in  the  various  oceans  is  estimated  at 

3,051,342  cubic  geographical  miles,  or  about  five  times  more  than 
the  mass  of  the  mountains  of  the  Alps. 

766.  What  is  the  depth  of  the  sea  ? 

The  extreme  depth  has  not,  probably,  been  ascertained.  But  Sir 
James  Ross  took  soundings  about  900  miles  west  of  St.  Helena, 
whence  he  found  the  sea  to  be  nearly  six  miles  in  depth.  Now,  if 
we  take  the  height  of  the  highest  mountain  to  be  five  miles,  the 
distance  from  that  extreme  rise  of  the  earth,  to  the  known  depth  of 
the  sea,  will  be  no  less  than  eleven  miles. 

767.  Why  are  the  waters  of  some  springs  impregnated 
ivith  mineral  matters  ? 


172  THE    EEASON   WHY. 


"Who  hath  measured  the  waters  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand,  and  meted  out 
heaven  with  the  span,  and  comprehended  the  dust  ot  the  earth  in  a  measure 
and  weighed  the  mountains  in  scales,  and  the  hills  in  a  balance  ?"— ISAIAH  XL. 


Because  the  water  passes  through  beds  of  soda,  lime,  magnesia, 
carbonic  acid,  oxides  of  iron,  sulphate  of  iron,  &c.,  &c.,  and  takes  up 
in  some  slight  degree  the  particles  of  those  minerals,  according  to 
the  proportions  in  which  they  abound. 

768.  W  Jiy  does  iron  rust  rapidly  when  wetted  ? 

Because  the  water  contains  a  large  proportion  of  oxygen,  some 
of  which  combines  with  the  iron  and  forms  an  oxide  of  iron,  which 
is  rust. 

769.  Why  does  stagnant  water  become  putrid  ? 

Because  the  large  amount  of  oxygen  which  it  contains  accelerates 
the  decomposition  of  dead  animal  and  vegetable  substances  that 
accumulate  in  it. 

770.  Is  there  danger  in  drinking  water  on  account  of  the 
living  animalcules  which  it  contains  ? 

No  danger  arises  from  the  living  creatures  in  water ;  but 
putrefactive  matters  may  produce  serious  diseases. 

771.  What  is  the  best  method  of  guarding  against  im- 
purities ? 

By  obtaining  water  from  the  purest  sources,  and  by  filtering 
it  before  drinking,  by  which  nearly  all  extraneous  matters  would  be 
separated  from  it. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

772.  What  is  attraction  ? 

Attraction  is  the  tendency  of  bodies  to  draw  near  to  each  other. 
It  is  called  attraction,  from  two  Latin  words  signifying  drawing 
towards. 

773.  Sow  many  kinds  of  attraction  are  there  ? 
There  are  five  principal  kinds  of  attraction  : — 

1.  The  attraction  of  gravitation. 

2.  The  attraction  of  cohesion. 

8.  The  attraction  of  chemical  affinity. 


THE    KEASON    WHY.  173 


*  Behold,  the  nations  are  as  a  drop  of  a  bucket,  and  are  counted  as  the  small 

dust  of  the  balance :  behold,  he  taketh  up  the  isles  as  a 

very  little  thing."— ISAIAH  XL. 

4.  The  attraction  of  electricity. 

5.  And  capillary  attraction. 

774.  Why  do  all  bodies  heavier  than  the  air  fall  to  ths 
earth  ? 

Because  they  are  influenced  by  the  attraction  of  gravitation,  by 
which  all  bodies  are  drawn  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth. 

775.  Why  do  bodies  lighter  than  the  air  ascend? 
Because  the  air,  being  a  denser  body,  obeys  the  law  of  attraction, 

and  in  doing  so  displaces  lighter  bodies  that  interfere  with  its 
gravitation. 

776.  Why    do  fragments  of  tea,    and   bubbles  floating 
upon  the  surface  of  tea,  draw  towards  each  other,  and  attach 
themselves  to  the  sides  of  the  cup. 

Because  they  are  influenced  by  the  attraction  of  cohesion. 
Cohesion.— The  act  of  sticking  together. 

777.  Why  will  a  drop  of  water  upon  the  blade  of  a  knife 
leave  a  dark  spot  ? 

Because  the  iron  of  the  Tcnife  attracts  the  oxygen  of  the  water,  by 
chemical  affinity  ;  and  the  two  substances  form  a  thin  coating  of 
oxide  of  iron. 

Affinity, — Attraction  between  dissimilar  particles  through  which  they  form 
new  compounds. 

778.  Why  do  clouds  sometimes  move  towards  each  other 
from  opposite  directions  ?  and 

779.  Why  do  light  particles  of  matter  attach  themselves 
to  sealing  wax,  excited  by  friction  ? 

Because  they  are  moved  by  the  attraction  of  electricity . 

780.  Why  will  a  towel,  the  corner  of  which  is  dipped  ii* 
water,  become  wet  far  above  the  water  ? 

Because  the  water  is  conveyed  up  through  the  towel,  by 
capillary  attraction.  The  atoms  of  the  water  are  attracted  by  the 
threads  of  the  towel,  and  drawn  up  into  the  small  spaces  between 
the  threads. 

Capillary.— Resembling  a  hair,  small  in  diameter. 


J74  THE   BKA30N    WHY. 


"  He  stretcheth  out  the  north  over  the  empty  place,  and  hangeth  the  earth  upon 
nothing."— JOB  xxvi. 


781.  Why   do   small   bodies  floating    upon   water    move 
towards  larger  ones  ? 

Because  the  attractive  power  of  a  large  body  is  greater  than  that 
of  a  small  one.  As  each  atom  of  matter  has  inherent  power  of 
attraction,  it  follows  that  a  large  aggregation  of  particles  must 
attract  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  those  particles. 

782.  Why  do  clouds  gather  around  mountain  tops  ? 
Because  they  are  attracted  by  the  mountains. 

783.  Why  would  a  piece  of  lead  tied  to  a  string,  and 
let  .down  from  a  church  steeple,  incline  a  little  from  the 
perpendicular  towards  the  church  ? 

Because  the  masses  of  stone  of  which  the  church  is  built  would 
attract  the  lead. 

784.  How  can  man  weigh  the  earth  ? 

By  observing  what  is  called  the  deflection  of  small  bodies  when 
"brought  within  given  distances  of  larger  bodies,  the  degree  of 
attraction  exercised  by  the  large  body  upon  the  smaller  one 
becomes  known.  This  attraction  of  the  large  body  exercised  over 
the  smaller  body  is  an  opposing  influence,  acting  against  the 
earth's  attraction  of  the  small  body,  which  is  drawn  out  of  its 
course  :  it  constitutes  a  natural  balance  between  the  influence  of 
the  earth  and  another  body,  acting  in  opposition  to  it.  Founded 
upon  these,  and  some  other  data,  man  can  weigh  the  earth,  and 
give  a  morally  certain  result ! 

Deflection.— The  act  of  turning  aside. 

785.  Sow  can  man  weigh  the  planets  ? 

The  planets  exercise  as  certain  an  influence  upon  each  other  as  do 
two  pieces  of  wood  floating  upon  a  basin  of  water.  As  the 
planetary  bodies  fly  through  their  prescribed  orbits,  and  approach 
nearer  to,  or  travel  further  from,  each  other,  they  are  observed 
to  deviate  from  that  course  which  they  must  have  pursued  but  for 
the  increase  or  the  decrease  of  some  influence  of  attraction.  By 
making  observations  at  various  times,  and  by  comparing  a  number 
of  results,  it  is  possible  to  weigh  any  planetary  body,  hoivever  vast, 
or  however  distant. 


THE   REASON    WHY.  175 


1  Ts  not  God  in  the  height  of  the  heaven?  and  behold  the  height  of  the  stars, 
how  high  they  are  ?"— JOB  xii. 


786.  How  can  man  measure  the  distances  of  the  planets  ? 

By  making  observations  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  when 
the  earth  is  in  opposite  positions  in  her  orbit ;  and  ty  recording, 
by  instruments  constructed  with  the  greatest  nicety,  the  angle  of 
sight,  at  which  the  planetary  body  is  viewed ;  by  noticing,  also, 
the  various  eclipses,  and  estimating  how  long  the  first  light  after. 
an  eclipse  has  ceased  reaches  the  earth,  it  is  possible  to  estimate 
the  distances  of  heavenly  bodies,  no  matter  how  Jar  in  the  depths 
of  the  universe  those  orbs  may  be. 

787.  What    are    the    opinions  founded    upon    estimates 
respecting  the  magnitude  of  the  sun  ? 

The  diameter  of  the  sun  is  770,800  geographical  miles,  or  112 
times  greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  earth ;  its  volume  is 
1,407,124  times  that  of  the  earth,  and  600  limes  greater  than  all  the 
planets  together  ;  its  mass  is  359,551  times  greater  than  the  earth ; 
and  738  times  greater  than  that  of  all  the  planets.  A  single  spot 
seen  upon  its  surface  has  been  estimated  to  extend  over  77,000  miles 
fn  diameter,  and  a  cluster  of  spots  have  been  estimated  to  include  an 
area  of  3,780,000  miles. 

788.  What  is  the  weight  of  the  earth  { 

The  earth  has  a  circumference  of  25,000  miles,  and  is  estimated 
to  weigh  1,256,195,670,000,000,000,000,000  tons. 

789.  What  is  the  specific  gravity  of  a  body? 

It  is  its  weight  estimated  relatively  to  the  weights  of  other 
bodies. 

790.  What  determines  the  force  with  which  bodies  fall  to 
the  earth  ? 

Generally  speaking,  their  specific  gravity,  which  is  proportionate 
to  the  density,  or  compactness  of  the  atoms  of  which  they  are 
composed. 

791.  Why  does  a  feather  fall  to  the  earth  more  gradually 
than  a  shilling  ? 

Because  the  specific  gravity  of  the  feather  and  of  the  shilling  is 


J_76  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


"  Where  wast  thou  when  I  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth?  declare,  if  thou 
hast  understanding. 


relative  to  that  of  the  air,  the  medium  through  which  the  feather 
and  the  shilling-  pass.  If  there  were  no  air,  a  shilling-  and  a  feather 
dropped  at  the  same  time  from  a  height  of  forty  miles,  would  reacJi 
the  earth,  at  the  same  moment. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

792.  What  is  repulsion  ? 

Eepulsion  is  that  property  in  matter  by  which  it  repels  or  recedes 
from,  those  bodies  for  which  it  has  no  attraction  or  affinity. 

793.  Why  does  dew  form  into  round  drops  upon  the  leaves 
of  plants  ? 

Because  it  repels  the  air,  and  the  substances  of  the  leaves  upon 
which  it  rests.    Because,  also,  its  own  particles  cohere. 

794.  Why  do  drops  of  water  roll  over  dusty  surfaces  ? 
Because  they  repel  the  particles  of  dust ;  and  also  because  their 

own  particles  have  a  stronger  attraction  for  each  other  than  for 
the  particles  of  dust. 

795.  Why  does  a  needle  float  when  carefully  laid  upon  the 
surface  of  water  ? 

Because  the  needle  and  the  water  mutually  repel  each  other. 

796.  W  hy  does  water,  when  dropped  upon  hot  iron,  move 
about  in  agitated  globules  ? 

Because  the  caloric  repels  the  particles  of  the  water. 

797.  Why  does  oil  float  upon  the  surface  of  water  ? 
Because,  besides  being  specially  lighter  than  water,  the  particles 

of  the  oil  and  the  water  mutually  repel  each  other. 

798.  What  is  carbonic  acid? 

Carbonic    acid    is    a    mixture   of  carbon  and   oxygen,  in  the 
proportion  of  3  Ibs.  of  carbon  to  8  Ibs.  of  oxygen. 

799.  Where  does  carbonic  acid  chiefly  exist  f 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  J77 


Who  hath  laid  the  measures  thereof,  if  thou  knowest  ?  or  who  hath  stretched 
the  line  upon  it  ? 


It  exists  in  various  natural  bodies  in  which  carbon  and  oxygen 
are  combined ;  it  is  evolved  by  the  decomposition  of  numerous 
bodies  called  carbonates,  in  which  carbon  is  united  with  a  particular 
base,  such  as  the  carbonate  of  lime,  the  carbonate  of  iron,  the 
carbonate  of  copper,  &c.  It  is  also  evolved  by  the  processes  of 
fermentation,  by  the  breathing  of  animals,  the  combustion  of  fuel, 
and  the  functions  of  plants.  Carbonic  acid  also  exists  in  various 
waters. 

Carbonic  acid  is  found  most  largely  in  solid  combinations  with 
other  bodies :  it  forms  44-100ths  of  all  limestones  and  marbles,  and 
it  exists  in  smaller  quantity,  combined  with  other  earths,  and  with 
metallic  oxides. 

800.  What  are  the  states  in  which  pure  carbonic  acid 
exists  ? 

Pure  carbonic  acid  may  exist  in  the  solid,  the  liquid,  or  the 
aeriform  state.  In  the  solid  state  it  is  produced  only  by  artificial 
means,  and  it  is  then  a  white  crystalised  body,  in  appearance  like 
snow  ;  in  the  liquid  state  it  is  a  heavy  colourless  fluid ;  in  the 
aeriform  state  it  is  a  pungent,  heavy,  colourless  gas,  and  is  known 
as  carbonic  acid  gas. 

801.  Why  does  bottled  porter  produce  large  volumes  of 
froth,  much  more  than  the  bottle  could  contain  ? 

Because,  by  the  fermentive  process,  carbonic  acid  has  been 
developed  in  the  porter,  and  is  held  in  liquid  solution;  but  it 
always  has  a  strong  tendency  to  escape,  and  directly  the  pressure  is 
removed,  it  evolves  into  gas,  by  which  it  occupies  much  greater 
space,  and  forces  the  porter  in  millions  of  small  bubbles  out  of  the 
bottle. 

892.   Why  does  soda-water  effervesce  ? 

Because  carbonic  acid  gas  is  forced  into  the  water  by  pressure. 
Pressure  alters  the  gas  into  a  liquid,  and  directly  the  pressure 
ceases,  the  liquid  again  evolves  into  gas. 

803.   Why  does  spring  water  taste  fresh  and  invigorating  ? 

Because  it  contains  carbonic  acid. 

8* 


THE    BENSON    WHY. 


"Whereupon  are  the  foundations  thereof  fastened?  or  who  laid  the  corner- 
stone  thereof."— JOB  xxxvm. 


804.  Why  does  boiled  water  taste  flat  and  insipid  ? 
Because  the  carbonic  acid  has  been  driven  off"  by  boiling. 

805.  Why  does  beer  which  has  been  standing  in  a  glass 
taste  flat  ? 

Because  its  carbonic  acid  has  escaped  as  carbonic  acid  gas. 

806.  Why,  when  we  look  into  a  glass  of  champagne,  do  ice 
see   bubbles   spontaneously   appear  at  the  bottom,  and   then 
rise  to  the  top  ? 

Because,  in  the  places  where  the  bubbles  are  formed,  the  liquid 
carbonic  acid  is  evolving  into  carbonic  acid  gas. 

807.  Why  do  the  bubbles  arise  from  two  or  three  points  in 
columns,  rapidly  succeeding  each  other  ? 

Because,  when  the  formation  of  gas  once  begins,  and  bubbles 
ascend,  there  is  less  pressure  in  the  line  of  the  column  of  bubbles  ; 
the  carbonic  acid,  therefore,  draws  towards  those  points  as  the 
easiest  channel  of  escape. 

These  explanations  equally  apply  to  the  "  working"  of  beer,  by  which  yeast  is 
produced ;  to  the  efferveserice  of  various  waters,  acidulated  drinks,  ginger  beer, 
&c.,  and  also  to  the  "  sponging"  of  bread,  &c. 

808.  Why  does  gunpowder  explode  ? 

Gunpowder  is  made  of  a  very  intimate  mechanical  mixture  of 
nitrate  of  potash,  charcoal,  and  sulphur.  When  these  substances 
are  'heated  to  a  certain  degree,  the  nitrate  of  potash  is  decomposed, 
and  its  oxygen  combines  with  the  charcoal  and  sulphur,  instan- 
taneously forming  large  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and  nitrogen, 
which,  seeking  an  escape,  produce  an  explosion. 

809.  Why  does  charcoal  act  as  a  powerful  disinfectant  ? 
Because  the  carbon  readily  absorbs,  and  combines  with  various 

gases,   neutralising   their   offensive  odours,  and  destroying  their 
unhealthy  properties. 

Let  us  now  pause  for  a  few  moments  to  consider  the  importance  of  those  two 
great  divisions  of  nature,  Air  and  Water,  and  to  reflect  upon  the  wisdom  of  some 
of  those  laws  which  are  connected  with  the  phenomena  thereof,  and  which  have 
not  yet  been  sufficiently  explained. 

We  have  seen  that  the  air  is  a  thin  elastic  body  surrounding  the  globe ;  tha* 


TUB  liEAsojy  WHY.  [79 

1  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  Let  not  the  wise  man  glory  in  his  wisdom,  neither  let  the 

mighty  man  glory  in  his  might,  let'not  the  rich  man  glory  in  his  riches."— 

JEREMIAH  ix. 


it  consists  of  certain  gases  essential  to  the  life  of  animals,  and  to  the  growth  of 
plants ;  and  that  it  takes  part  in  most  of  those  chemical  changes,  which  mark 
the  transformations  of  the  inorganic  creation.  Whether  it  be  the  burning  of  a 
piece  of  wood,  the  evaporation  of  a  drop  of  water,  the  breathing  of  an  animal, 
the  respiration  of  a  plant,  or  the  fermentation  of  bodies,  the  air  in  almost  every 
instance  gives  or  receives — and  in  most  of  the  operations  in  which  it  engages,  it 
does  both. 

But  there  is  one  point  of  view,  which  we  must  add  to  those  which  have 
already  been  considered :  the  order  of  nature  consists  of  generation,  life,  and 
death.  Every  beat  of  the  watch  signals  the  birth  of  millions  of  living  things, 
and  the  same  beat  proclaims  that  as  many  living  organisms  have  yielded  up  their 
vital  spark,  and  that  forthwith  the  elements  of  which  they  are  composed  must 
be  dissolved,  and  restored  to  the  great  laboratory  of  nature. 

The  air  is  the  vast  receptacle  of  those  organic  matters  which  are  undergoing 
dissolution.  The  body  of  the  shipwrecked  mariner,  cast  upon  the  shore  of  a 
desolate  island,  blackens  in  the  sun,  and  the  full  round  form  gradually  dwindles 
to  skin  and  bone,  until  at  last  the  few  atoms  that  remain  crumble  into  dust,  and 
are  scattered  to  the  wind.  The  same  process  occurs,  with  some  modifications, 
whether  bodies  are  buried  in  the  earth,  or  dissolve  upon  its  surface.  The 
leaves  of  forests  fall  and  accumulate  in  heaps,  where  they  ferment  and  dissolve, 
leaving  only  their  more  earthy  particles  behind. 

The  amount  of  matter  which  day  by  day  passes  from  the  state  of  the  living  to 
that  of  the  dead,  must  be  enormous ;  but  from  the  difficulties  of  acquiring  data, 
beyond  the  possibility  of  calculation.  Such  statistics  as  we  have,  however, 
enable  us  to  form  conclusions  as  to  the  mighty  agencies  in  which  the  air  is 
constantly  engaged.  There  are  on  tho  earth  1,000,000,000  inhabitants  of  whom 
nearly  35,000,000  die  every  year,  91,824  every  day,  3,730  every  hour,  and  60  every 
minute.  But  even  the  living  die  daily,  and  undergo  an  invisible  change  of 
substance,  as  we  shall  hereafter  explain. 

The  bodies  of  those  many  millions  are  dissolved  in  the  air,  in  vapours  and 
gases  which,  before  the  dissolution  of  each  corporeal  organism  is  complete, 
begin  to  live  again  in  the  various  forms  of  vegetable  and  animal  life. 

Of  the  number  of  animals  living  and  dying  upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  we  can 
form  no  adequate  estimate.  Of  mammals  there  are  about  2,000  ascertained 
species ;  of  birds  8,000  species ;  of  reptiles  2,000  species ;  of  fishes  some  8,000 
or  10,000  species ;  of  molluscs  some  15,000  species ;  of  shell  fish  8,000  species ; 
of  insects  70,000  species.  And,  including  others  not  specified  here,  the  total 
number  of  species  of  animals  probably  amounts  to  no  less  than  250,000,— each 
species  consisting  of  many  millions  of  living  creatures. 

In  the  area  of  London  alone,  no  less  than  200,000  tons  of  fuel  are  annually  cast 
into  the  air  in  the  form  of  smoke.  And  if  we  take  into  account  the  vast  opera- 
tions of  nature  in  evaporation,  fermentation,  and  putrefactive  decomposition, 
we  may  be  enabled  to  form  a  conception  of  the  mighty  part  which  that  thin  air, 
cf  which  we  think  so  little,  plays  in  the  grand  alchemy  of  nature. 

In  addition,  also,  to  the  facts  already  communicated,  respecting  the  sound- 
bearing  and  light-refracting  properties  of  air,  it  must  be  remarked,  that  but  for 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  general  refraction  of  light  by  its  particles — each  atom 
as  it  were  catching  a  fairy  taper,  and  dancing  with  it  before  fur  view— the  con. 
dition  of  vision  would  be  widely  opposite  to  that  which  exists,  and  totally 


ISO  THE    EEAF.ON    WRY. 


*  I  will  praise  thee ;  for  I  am  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made ;  marvellous  are 
thy  works ;  and  that  my  soul  knoweth  right  well."— PSALM  cxxxix. 


uusuited  to  our  wants.  The  various  objects  upon  which  the  illuminating  rays 
of  the  sun  fell,  would  be  lighted  up  with  an  intense  glare,  but  all  around  would 
be  darkness,  just  as  when  a  single  ray  of  light  is  passed  into  a  dark  chamber, 
and  directed  upon  a  solitary  object.  The  air,  without  becoming  itself  visible, 
diffuses  luminous  rays,  in  modified  intensity,  in  every  direction.  If  the  ar 
reflected  so  much  light  as  to  render  itself  visible,  it  would  appear  like  the  glit- 
tering surface  of  the  water  reflecting  the  solar  rays,  and  we  should  then  be 
unable  to  see  the  various  objects  which  surround  us. 

Of  the  importance  of  Water  in  the  scheme  of  creation,  man  generally 
entertains  an  imperfect  conception.  It  is  simply  supposed  to  aft*ord  moisture 
to  plants,  drink  to  animals,  and  to  promote  salubrity  by  its  cleansing 
properties.  Let  us,  however,  contemplate  man  as  he  stands  before  us,  noble  in 
form,  erect  in  position,  full  of  strength,  joy,  ambition.  How  much  of  that 
noble  form  is  composed  of  water  ?  Suppose  that  it  could  all  be  instantaneously 
withdrawn— not  the  oxygen  and  t  le  hydrogen,  which  might  combine  to  form 
water— but  the  fluid  that  exists  in  his  body  as  water,  unchanged— except  by 
mechanical  admixture  with  the  secretions  of  the  body — Why  then  that  beautiful 
temple  would  collapse  and  become  a  mere  shred,  so  thin,  that  it  would  seem 
but  a  shadow  of  the  body  as  it  existed  before,  and  the  beholder  might  doubt 
whether  life  ever  inhabited  a  frame  whose  structure  was  so  frail.  It  is  said 
that  three-fourths  by  weight  of  the  human  body  consist  of  water.  Thus,  if  man 
weighs  120bs.,  90lbs.  consist  of  water,  and  this  substracted,  only  SOlbs.  of  solid 
matter  remain.  This  statement  is  rather  under  than  over  the  fact. 

The  assertion  is  startling,  but  so  true  that  it  can  be  verified  by  simple 
experiment.  Apiece  of  lean  flesh— say  of  beef— cut  an  inch  thick,  and  placed  in 
a  slow  oven,  and  allowed  to  remain  until  all  its  water  was  driven  off  in  vapour, 
would  become  as  thin  as  a  wafer,  and  as  light  as  a  cork.  With  a  more  scientific 
arrangement,  it  would  be  possible  to  collect  the  water,  and  the  weights  of  the 
condensed  vapour,  and  of  the  solid  residue,  would  together  make  up  the 
weight  of  the  beef:  if  the  piece  weighed  sixteen  ounces,  the  weight  of  the  water 
would  be  about  14  ounces,  and  the  solid  matter  about  two  ounces. 

Water  holds  a  similar  proportion  in  the  bodies  of  all  animals,  and  of 
vegetables.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  it  occupies  a  more  important  place  in 
the  scale  of  creation  than  is  generally  accorded  to  it  by  the  unobservant  mind. 
We  are  indebted  to  it  for  those  atmospheric  changes  which  constitute  the 
peculiar  feature  of  our  varying  climate.  Rising  in  invisible  vapours,  it  builds 
palaces  of  glory  in  the  skies,  and  often  presents  to  the  view  of  man  the  imagery 
of  heaven.  Persons  who  have  ascended  above  the  altitude  of  the  clouds,  have 
described  the  scene  upon  looking  down  towards  them  as  the  most  celestial  that 
the  mind  can  conceive.  Fields  of  fleecy  radiance,  majestically  rolling  like  a  soa 
of  gold,  occupied  the  whole  range  of  vision,  and  seemed  to  embellish  an  eternity 
of  space.  Those  golden  clouds  that  at  one  time  are  decked  in  the  richest 
splendour,  and  occupy  the  upper  chambers  of  the  Court  of  Nature,  become 
grave  councillors  when  the  earth  grows  thirsty,  and  the  plant  droops  with 
languor.  They  roll  their  heavy  brows  together,  as  in  consultation  upon  some 
grave  necessity:  down  come  the  refreshing  showers,  the  mighty  tongue  of 
thunder  rocks  the  air,  the  earth  is  drenched,  and  becomes  fresh  with  the 
salubrity  of  her  toilette;  obnoxious  substances,  with  their  offensive  exhalations, 
are  swept  away :  living  things  rejoice,  and  beautiful  flowers  throw  their  incense 
of  thanksgiving  into  the  air;  the  broad  blue  heavens  for  a  time  look  down  and 


THE   HEASON   WHY. 


How  mighty  are  his  wonders !  his  kingdom  is  an  everlasting  kingdom,  and 
his  dominion  is  from  generation  to  generation."— DANIEL  rv. 


smile  upon  the  blessed  work ;  and  then  the  clouds  again  gather  In  a  golden 
train,  and  one  by  one  fill  the  high  arches  of  the  atmosphere,  until  the  earth 
once  more  grows  thirsty,  and  the  flower  supplicates  for  drink. 

"With  reference  to  Light,  its  wonders,  and  the  curious  but  imperfect  theories 
respecting  it,  we  have  little  to  add,  except  with  regard  to  its  physiological  action 
upon  the  eyes  of  man  and  of  animals,  which  will  be  given  in  another  place.  But 
of  its  sister,  Darkness— for  it  would  not  do  now  to  call  darkness  the  antagonist 
of  light,  since  it  will  be  seen  that  they  work  harmoniously  for  good — we  have 
to  say,  that  recent  discoveries  indicate  that  darkness  is  as  necessary  to  the 
health  of  nature  as  light.  Not  only  is  it  necessary  to  compose  man. and  animals 
to  sleep,  to  give  rest  to  the  over- wrought  nerves  of  the  industrious  —  but 
light  is  the  quickening  power  of  vegetation,  and  although  plants  grow  by  night, 
they  grow,  as  man  does,  when  stretched  upon  his  bed— but  some  of  their  func 
tions,  which  are  actively  excited  in  the  presence  of  light,  are  at  rest  in  dark- 
ness. Nor  is  this  all :  there  is  not  an  atom  upon  the  face  of  the  earth  which  is 
not  affected  by  the  rays  of  the  sun,  their  light,  their  heat,  their  actinism.  Colours 
change :  some  are  bleached,  others  are  darkened.  All  bodies  are  expanded.  The 
hardest  rock  sustains  an  effect  from  the  sun's  rays ;  and  an  unceasing  sun,  shining 
upon  the  hardest  granite,  would  in  time  produce  such  a  disturbance  of  its 
atomic  condition,  that  adamant  would  crumble  away  to  dust. 

The  going  down  of  the  sun,  therefore,  marks  the  period  when  not  only  does 
the  bird  fly  to  her  resting-place,  and  man  turn  to  his  couch ;  but  when  every 
atom  of  a  vast  hemisphere  subsides  into  a  state  of  quietude,  and  when  homo- 
geneous particles  of  matter  return  to  their  mutual  rest. 

In  a  few  succeeding  lessons,  we  intend  to  point  out  some  of  the  scientific 
truths  that  are  illustrated  in  the  use  of  toys.  We  think  we  shall  be  able  to 
show  to  our  young  readers,  that  even  the  hours  of  play  may  be  made  the 
periods  of  delightful  instruction ;  and  that  there  is  no  "reason  why"  the  acquire- 
ment of  knowledge  should  not  sweetly  accord  with  the  occasional  pursuit  of 
those  pastimes  by  which  health  of  body  and  vigour  of  mind  are  induced. 

But  before  we  commence  the  discharge  of  that  pleasant  duty,  let  us  say  a  few 
words  respecting  Carbon,  that  important  agent  in  the  world's  history.  It  is, 
doubtless,  perplexing  to  the  minds  of  many  persons,  to  understand  how  the 
diamond  can  be  pure  carbon  ;  how  charcoal  can  be  carbon  a  little  less  pure 
than  the  diamond ;  and  how  coal  and  sugar  can  also  be  carbon,  less  pure  than 
the  charcoal.  The  statement  that  in  the  diamond  carbon  exists  in  a  different 
atomic  condition,  is  almost  as  instructive  to  the  inquiring  mind,  as  to  say.  "  It 
is  so,  because  it  is" 

Diamonds  are  expensive  things,  and  so  difficult  to  experiment  upon,  even  if 
they  were  not  expensive,  that  the  doors  of  inquiry  seem  locked.  To  turn 
diamonds  into  charcoal,  or  into  carbonic  acid  gas,  is  a  very  costly  formula  of 
experiment.  Charcoal  fires,  thus  sustained,  would  soon  burn  a  man  out  of  his 
house;  and  soda  water,  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  produced  from 
diamonds,  would  be  a  very  expensive  beverage.  If  we  could  only  turn  charcoal 
into  diamonds,  and  carbonic  acid  gas  into  brilliants,  that  would  be  quite 
another  affair.  A  new  Eldorado  would  be  discovered,  and  there  would  be  so 
many  experimenters  that,  when  they  all  succeeded,  they  would  find  that 
diamonds  had  lost  their  value.  However,  as  a  fact  for  the  encouragement  cf 
those  who  would  like  to  be  early  >n  the  race,  \vo  may  state  that  the  atoms  of 


182  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


1  He  delivereth  and  rescueth,  and  he  worketh  signs  and  wonders  in  heaven  and 
in  earth."— DANIEL  vn. 


charcoal  which  are  repulsed  from  the  charcoal  points,  during  the  electric  agita- 
tion which  produces  the  electric  light,  acquire  a  hardness  and  a  sharpness 
almost  equal  to  that  of  the  diamond- only  there  is  still  the  awkward  obstacle 
in  the  way,  that  they  happen  to  be  black. 

We  must  see,  therefore,  whether  there  is  anything  in  nature  that  we  can 
experiment  upon,  theoretically  or  practically,  to  give  us  a  clearer  conception  of 
this  difficult  matter.  There  is  a  large  dew-drop  resting  upon  a  luxuriant 
cabbage  leaf -one  of  those  great  leaves  that  have  nourished  in  defiance  of  the 
snail,  and  now  spreads  out  like  the  gigantic  frond  of  the  Victoria  Regina. 
That  dew-drop  is  one  of  the  beautiful  diamonds  which  Nature  sprinkles  about 
on  cloudless  nights,  as  if  to  show  the  stars,  in  answer  to  their  twinkling,  that  wo 
have  something  that  will  glisten  and  twinkle  too. 

The  dew-drop  is  a  very  good  imitation  of  a  diamond,  and  to  the  lover  of 
God's  works,  quite  as  precious  as  the  stone  set  in  gold.  It  does  not  consist  of 
carbon— it  probably  may  have  a  mite  of  carbonic  acid  in  its  embrace— but  that 
is  not  necessary  to  our  purpose :  all  we  want  to  know  is,  the  different  atomic 
conditions  of  which  bodies  are  susceptible,  and  the  very  dissimilar  appearances 
they  exhibit  under  the  variations  of  atomic  states.  It  doesn't  glisten  so 
much  as  the  diamond,  because  it  is  round — if  we  could  cut  it  into  a  number  of 
facets,  it  would  refract  light  almost  as  perfectly  as  the  diamond.  It  is  not 
solid— but  we  can  freeze  it,  and  we  shall  at  once  exhibit  two  different  atomic 
conditions,  that  will  represent  nearly  enough  the  diamond,  and  the  liquid 
carbonic  acid.  Then,  if  we  evaporate  the  dew-drop,  we  shall  produce  a  volume* 
of  vapour  nearly  tivo  thousand  times  as  large  as  the  dew-drop.  The  steam  will 
be  white ;  but  we  have  only  to  imagine  it  black,  and  then  we  get  an  analo-.-y  of 
the  differences  of  the  atomic  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  diamond,  carbonic 
acid,  and  charcoal,  tinder,  lamp-black,  or  any  light  form  of  carbon.  Of  course 
we  have  been  illustrating  atomic  conditions  only,  and  not  chemical  composition. 

There  are  a  few  other  facts  connected  with  carbon  that  merit  consideration. 
Carbonic  acid  gas,  entering  the  lungs,  is  a  deadly  poison;  but  entering  the 
stomach,  which  lies  close  under  the  lungs,  and  is  over-lapped  by  them,  it  is  a 
refreshing  beverage.  Although  charcoal,  when  burnt,  gives  off  the  most 
poisonous  gas,  it  seems  to  be  very  jealous  of  other  gaseous  poisons  ;  for  if  it  be 
powdered,  and  set  about  in  pans  where  there  is  a  poisonous  atmosphere,  it  will 
seize  hold  of  poisonous  gases,  and,  by  absorbing,  imprison  them.  Even  in  a 
drop  of  toast  and  water,  the  charred  bread  seizes  hold  of  whatever  impurities 
exist  in  the  water ;  and  water  passed  through  beds  of  charcoal,  becomes  filtered, 
and  made  beautifully  pure,  being  compelled  to  give  up  to  the  charcoal 
whatever  is  obnoxious.  If  a  piece  of  meat  that  has  already  commenced 
putrifying,  be  sprinkled  with  charcoal,  it  will  not  only  object  to  the  meat 
putrifying  any  further,  but  it  will  sweeten  that  ivhich  has  already  undergone 
putrefaction.  Although,  in  the  form  of  gas,  it  will  poison  the  blood,  and  cause 
speedy  stupefaction  and  death  ;  if  it  be  powdered,  and  stitched  into  a  piece  of 
silk,  and  worn  before  the  mouth  as  a  respirator,  it  will  say  to  all  poisonous 
gases  that  come  to  the  mouth  with  the  air,  "  I  have  taken  this  post  to  defend 
the  lungs,  and  I  arrest  you,  on  a  charge  of  murderous  intention."  Such  are  tho 
various  facts  connected  with  carbon ;  and  they  forcibly  indicate  that  those  wh» 
(understand  Nature's  vyorks,  are  likely  to  receive  her  best  protection. 


THE    BEASOX    WHY.  183 


"  The  father  of  the  righteous  shall  greatly  rejoice ;  and  he  that  begetteth  a  wise 
child  shall  have  joy  of  him." — PEOVEEBS  xxm. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIIL 

810.  Why  does  a  humming-top  make  a  humming  noise? 
Because  the  hollow  wood  of  the  top  vibrates,  and  the  edges  of  the 

hole  in  its  sides  strike  against  the  air  as  it  spins ;  the  air  is 
thereby  set  in  vibration. 

811.  Why   does  a  peg-top    hum   less  than   a  humming- 
top? 

Because,  being  a  solid  body  of  wood,  and  having  no  hole  in  its 
sides,  its  particles  are  not  so  easily  thrown  into  vibration; 
consequently  it  does  not  so  readily  impart  vibrations  to  the  air. 

812.  Why  does  a  peg-top  sometimes  hum,  and  at  other 
times  not  ? 

Because,  if  it  is  spun  with  great  force,  and  its  peg  is  struck 
sharply  against  the  pavement,  the  wood  is  set  in  vibration,  and 
the  surface  of  the  top,  repelling  the  air  by  its  rapid  motion,  causes 
vibratory  waves.  But  if  it  be  spun  with  insufficient  force,  the 
wood  is  not  set  in  vibration. 


Fig.  23.— HTTMMING-TOP  BEFOBE  Fig.  ^.-HUMMING-TCP 

SPINNING.  SPINNING. 

813.  Why  do  we  see  the  figures  painted  upon  the  humming- 
top,  before  it  spins,  but  not  while  it  is  spinning  ? 

Because  the  rapid  whirling  of  the  top  brings  the  images  of  its 
different  parts  so  quiokly  in  succession  upon  the  retina  of  the  eye, 


[84  TI1E 


'Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go ;  and  when  he  is  old,  he  will  not 
depart  from  it."— PROVERBS  xxn. 


that  they  deface  each  other,  and  impart  an,  impression  of  coloured 
rings,  instead  of  definite  objects. 

814.  Why  does  a  top  stand  erect  when  it  spins,  but  fail 
when  it  stops  ? 

Because  the  top  is  under  the  influence  of,  and  is  balanced 
between  opposing  forces.  The  rapffi  rotation  of  the  top  gives 
to  all  its  particles  a  tendency  to  fly  from  the  centre.  If  the  atoms 
of  the  wood  were  not  held  together  by  the  attraction  of  cohesion, 
they  would  fly  away  in  a  circle  outward  from  the  top,  just  ax  drop* 
of  water  fly  off  from  a  mop,  while  it  is  being  twirled.  If  you 
take  a  spoonful  of  sand,  salt,  or  dust,  and  drop  it  upon  the  top,  it 
will  be  scattered  in  a  circle,  just  as  the  atoms  of  the  top  would  be, 
if  they  were  free  to  separate,  but  not  with  the  same  force,  because 
the  atoms  of  the  salt,  &c.,  not  being  in  an  active  state  of  rotation, 
would  only  be  influenced  by  momentary  contact  with  the  rotating 
body.  This  tendency  of  the  particles  of  a  rotating-  body  to  fly 
outward  from  the  centre,  is  called  the  centrifugal  force. 

Centrifugal. — From  two  Latin  words  meaning  receding  from  the  centre. 

The  other  force  influencing  the  top  is  the  attraction  of  gravita- 
tion: the  attraction  which,  were  the  top  not  spinning,  would  draw  it 
towards  the  earth.  The  "  spill "  projecting  from  the  bottom  of  the 
top  stands  in  the  line  in  which  the  top  is  drawn  towards  the  earth 
and  keeps  it  from  obeying  the  law  of  gravitation.  Therefore  the 
rotatory  motion  given  to  the  top,  by  the  rapid  unwinding  of  the 
string,  and  the  tendency  of  its 'atoms  to  fly  outward,  balance  the  top 
upon  the  line  in  which  it  is  drawn  to  the  earth,  and  which  is  occupied 
by  the  spill,  which  prevents  it  fulling  to  the  ground. 

815.  Why  does  a  top  Jirst  reel  around  upon  the  spill,  then 

become  upright,  and  "sleep"  and  then  reel 
again,  and  fall  ? 

Because,  in  being  thrown  from  the  hand,  the 
top  is  delivered  a  little  out  of  the  perpendicular, 
but  the  spill  is  rounded  off'  at  the  point,  and 
when  the  top  is  rotating  rapidly,  the  graviH- 
tive  force  which  attracts  the  top  to  the  ground 
continually  acting  upon  it,  draws  the  weight 
Fi*.  86.— pE<*-rop  "  KEELING." 


THE   SEASON    WHY  185 


Even  a  child  is  known  by  his  doings,  whether  his  work  be  pure,  and  whether 
it  be  right."— PROVERBS  xx. 


of  the  top  on  to  the  extreme  centre  of  the  round  point.  When 
the  rotation  subsides,  and  the  centrifugal  force  is  weakened, 
then  the  top  is  no  longer  balanced  upon  the  extreme  point  of 
the  spill,  but  falls  upon  it  sides,  until  the  force  of  gravita- 
tion is  exerted  beyond  the  line  of  the  spill,  upon  the  body  of  the 
top,  and  then  it  falls  to  the  ground. 

816.  Why  does  a  top  "  sleep  T" 

Because  at  that  period  of  its  spinning,  which  is  called  "  sleeping," 
the  centrifugal  and  the  gravitative  forces  acting  upon  the  top,  are 
nearly  balanced;  and  the  top,  obeying  chiefly  the  rotatory  force, 
appears  to  be  in  a  state  of  comparative  rest. 

817.  Why  does  the  top  cease  to  spin  ? 

Because  the  friction  of  the  air  against  its  sides,  and  the  friction 
of  the  spill  against  the  around,  act  in  opposition  to  the  rotatory 
force,  which  is  a  temporary  impulse  applied  by  external  means — the 
hand  of  the  person  who  spins  it — and  as  soon  as  this  applied  force 
is  expended,  the  top  yields  to  the  law  of  gravitation,  which  is  a 
permanent  and  ever-prevailing  force. 

818.  Why  does  a  marble  revolve,  as  it  is  propelled  along 
the  ground  ? 

Because,  in  propelling  the  marble,  the  thumb  impels  the  upper 
surf  ace  forward,  and  the  finger  draws  the  under  surface  back- 
ward. This  gives  a  tendency  to  the  upper  and  lower  hemispheres 
of  the  marble  to  separate,  which  they  would  do,  but  for  the 
cohesion  of  the  atoms  of  the  marble.  The  upper  part  of  the  marble, 
therefore,  rolls  forward,  drawing  after  it  the  under  part,  which 
acquires  a  forward  motion  by  the  force  with  which  it  is  drawn 
upward,  and  in  this  way  the  opposite  portions  of  the  marble  act 
upon  each  other  in  the  successive  revolutions. 

When  the  marble  strikes  upon  the  earth,  a  new  influence  is 
exerted  upon  it,  which  is  the  friction  of  the  earth  upon  the  surface 
that  comes  in  contact  wjth  it ;  but  the  upper  part  of  the  marble, 
being  free,  overcomes  the  friction  acting  upon  the  litwer  part,  and 
thus  the  marble  continues  to  progress,  until  the  applied  force 
which  projected  it  is  expended. 


186 


THE    BEASON    WHY. 


1  Better  is  a  poor  and  a  wise  child,  than  an  old  and  foolish  king  who  will  no 
more  be  admonished."— ECCLESIASTES  iv. 


819.  Why  does  a  striped  marble  appear  to  have  a  greater 
number  of  stripes  when  rolling,  than  ichen  at  rest  ? 

Because  the  stripes  are  presented  in  rapid  succession  to  the 
eye ;  and  as  the  eye  receives  fresh  impressions  of  stripes  before 
the  previous  impressions  have  passed  away,  the  stripes  appear 
multiplied. 


Fig.  26.— MARBLE  AT  REST 


Fig.  27.— MARBLE  ROLLING. 


820.  Why  does  a  marble  rebound  when  dropped  upon  the 
pavement  ? 

Because  the  force  of  its  fall  to  the  earth  compresses  the  atoms  of 
which  the  marble  is  composed  ;  and  the  atoms  then  exert  the  force 
of  elasticity  to  restore  themselves  to  their  former  condition  ;  and 
by  the  exercise  of  this  force  the  marble  is  repelled,  or  thrown 
upward  from  the  pavement.  Although  a  marble  may  be  made  of 
very  hard  stone,  yet  that  stone  may  be  elastic,  and  possess,  though 
in  a  much  less  degree,  the  same  kind  of  elasticity  which  causes 
the  India-rubber  ball  to  rebound  from  the  earth. 

821.  Why  does  a  marble,  assuming  it  to  be  impelled  with 
equal  force,  roll  further  on  ice  than  on  pavement,  and  further 
on  pavement  than  on  a  pebble  walk? 

Because  the  friction  is  greater  upon  pavement  than  upon  ice, 
and  greater  upon  a  pebble  walk  than  upon  pavement. 

822.  How  many  forces  contribute  to  stay  the  progress  of 
«  rolling  marble  ? 


THE   BEASON   WHY.  187 


He  shall  turn  the  heart  of  the  fathers  towards  the  children,  and  the  heart  of 
the  children  to  their  fathers."— MALACHI  iv. 


The  friction  of  the  air,  the  friction  of  the  earth,  and  the 
attraction  of  gravitation,  which  tends  to  bring  all  bodies  to  a 
state  of  rest. 

823.  Why  do  the  stripes  upon  a  marble  disappear  when  it 
is  spun  with  great  velocity  ? 

Because,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
humming-top,  the  different  parts 
of  the  surface   are    brought   so 
HI  \  '     rapidly    in    succession     to    the 
fE^r    sight,  that  they  deface  or  con- 
fuse   the  impressions  upon  the 
-?L    retina. 

824.   Why  are  rings  most 
perceptible    at    the    opposite 

Fig.28.-MABBLE  SPIKNIKaKAPIDLT.     £V  ^  „  ^  Q/  fa  ^^  ? 


Because  the  point,  or  pole,  upon  which  the  marble  spins,  and 
that  which  corresponds  to  it,  on  the  upper  surface,  travel  less 
rapidly  than  the  central  portions,  which  being  of  a  larger 
circumference,  pass  through  a  greater  amount  of  space,  in  the  same 
period  of  time.  The  stripes  at  the  poles  of  the  marble,  are,  therefore 
visible,  while  those  at  its  equator  are  imperceptible.  (See  522.) 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

825.  Why  are  soap-bubbles  round? 

Because  they  are  equally  pressed  upon  all  parts  of  their  surface 
by  the  atmosphere. 

826.  Why  are  bubbles  elongated  when  being  blown  ? 
Because  the  unequal  pressure  of  the  current  oj  breath  by  which 

they  are  being  filled,  alters  the  relative  pressure  upon  the  outer 
surfaces. 

827.  Why  does  the  bubble  close,   and   become   a  perfect 
sphere,  wlien  shaken  from  the  pipe? 


188  THE   REASON   WHY. 


'  Children's  children  are  the  crown  of  old  men ;  and  the  glory  of  children  are 
their  fathers."— PKOVERBS  xvn. 


Because  the  attraction  of  cohesion  draws  the  particles  of  soap 
together,  directly  the  bubble  is  set  free  from  the  bowl. 


Fig.  29.— BLOWING  SOAP  BUBBLES. 

828.  Why  do  bullies,  blown  in  the  sunshine,  change  their 
colours  ? 

Because  the  films  of  the  bubbles  constantly  change  in  thickness, 
through  the  atoms  from  the  upper  part  descending  towards  the 
bottom,  and  therefore  the  varying  thickness  of  film  refracts,  in 
different  degrees,  the  rays  of  light. 

829.  Why  do  bubbles  burst  ? 

Because  the  atoms  that  compose  their  films  fall  towards  the 
earth  by  gravitation;   the  upper  portion  of  the  bubbles  then 
becomes  very  thin,  and  as  the  denser  air  of  the  atmosphere  presses 
towards  the  warm  breath  within  the  bubble,  it  bursts  the  Him. 
See  236.  237,  etc.,  501,  etc. 

830.  Why  do  balloons  ascend  in  air  ? 

Because  the  air  or  gas  which  they  contain  is  specifically  lighter 
than  the  atmosphere;  the  atmosphere,  therefore,  forces  itself 
underneath  the  balloon,  by  its  own  tendency  towards  the  earth, 
and  the  balloon  is  thereby  raised  upwards.  A  balloon  is  but  a 
larger  kind  of  bubble,  made  of  stronger  materials. 

831.  Why  does  an  air-balloon  become  inflated  when   the 
spirit  set  upon  the  sponge  is  lit  ? 


THE   BEABON   WHY. 


189 


"  A  wise  son  heareth  his  father's  instruction."— PKO  VERBS  xill. 


Because  the  heat  of  the  flame, 
and  the  burning  of  the  spirit,  A, 
create  a  volume  of  rarefied,  or  thin 
air,  which  inflates  the  balloon,  and 
makes  it  specifically  lighter  than 
the  surrounding  medium. 

832.  Why  do  balloons  some- 
times burst  when  they  ascend 
very  high  ? 

Because,  as  they  get  into  the 
thinner  air,  which  exists  at  high 
altitudes,  the  gas  within  them  ex- 
pands, and  the  coating  of  the  balloon 
is  burcrt  asunder. 

Fig.  30.     AIR-BALLOO*.  £33       f^^y     ^Qes      fa    gaS      Of 

balloons  expand  in  thin  air  ? 

Because  the  air  exerts  a  less  amount  of  pressure  upon  the  air  or 
gas  contained  in  the  balloons. 

834.   Why    do    parachutes    fall    very    gradually   to  the 
ground? 

Because  the  air,  coming  n  con- 
tact with  the  under  surface  of  the 
expanded  head  of  the  parachute 
resists  its  downward  progress. 

835.  Why  does  a  shuttlecock 
travel  slowly  through  the  air? 

Because  the  air  acts  upon  the 
feathers  of  the  shuttlecock,  in  the 
same  manner  as  it  does  upon  the 
parachute— it  strikes  against  their 
expanded  surface,  and  resists  their 
progress  through  the  air. 

Fig.  31.— PAPE3  PARACHUTE. 

836.   Why   does  the   shuttle- 
cock spin  in  the  air  ? 


190  THE   BEA80N   WHY. 


"  Come  ye  children,  hearken  unto  me,  I  will  teach  you  the  fear  of  the  Lord."— 

PSALM  XXXV. 


Because  the  surfaces  of  the  feathers  fall  upon  the  air  obliquely,  or 
slantingly,  and  therefore,  as  the  shuttlecock  descends,  it  turns  in 
the  air. 


Fi«.  32.— BATTLEDORE  AKD  SHUTTLECOCK, 

837.  Why  do  we  hear  a  noise  when  we  strike  the  shuttle- 
cock  with  the  battledore  ? 

Because  the  percussion  of  the  shuttlecock  upon  the  parchment  of 
the  battledore  causes  it  to  vibrate,  and  the  vibrations  are  imparted  to 
the  air. 

838.  Why  is  the  sound  a  dull  and  short  one  ? 

Because  the  vibrations  of  the  parchment  are  not  very  rapid, 
therefore  there  is  little  intensity  in  the  vibrations  of  the  air. 

839.  Why  does  the  exercise,  afforded  by  playing  battle- 
dore and  shuttlecock,  make  us  feel  warm  ? 

Because  it  makes  us  breathe  more  freely,  and  causes  the  blood  to 
flow  faster ;  we,  therefore,  inhale  more  oxygen,  which  produces 
heat  by  combining  with  the  carbon  of  our  blood. 

840.  Why  does  a  kite  rise  in  the  air  / 

A  kite  rises  in  the  air  by  the  force  of  the  wind,  which  strikes 
obliquely  upon  its  under  surface.  The  string  is  attached  to  the 
"  belly-band  "  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  nearer  the  top  than  the 
bottom  of  the  band :  this  causes  the  bottom  of  the  kite,  when  its 
surface  is  met  by  the  wind,  to  recede  in  the  direction  of  the  wind : 


THE   EEASCN    WHY.  J91 


**  Be  ye  therefore  followers  of  God,  as  dear  children  ;  and  walk  in  love,  as  Christ 
also  hath  loved  us."—  EPHESIANS  v 


the  top  is  accordingly  thrown  forward,  and  the  kite  is  made  to  lie 
obliquely  upon  the  current  of  air  moving  against  it.  The  kite  then 
being  drawn  by  the  string  in  one  direction,  and  pressed  by  the 
air  in  another  direction,  moves  in  a  line  which  describes  a 
medium  between  the  two  forces  acting  upon  it. 

841.   Why  does  the  kite-string  feel   hot   when    running 
through  the  hand? 


Fig.  83.— DIAGRAM  EXPLAINING  THE  FLIGHT  OF  A  KITE. 

Because  the  rapid  friction  sets  free  the  latent  heat  of  the 
firing,  attracts  the  heat  of  the  hand  to  the  spot  where  the 
friction  occurs,  and  sets  free  the  latent  heat  of  the  air,  which 
follows  the  string  through  the  hand,  and  is  compressed  by  the 
friction. 

842.  Why  does  running  with  the  kite  cause  it  to  rise 
higher  ? 

Because  it  increases  the  force  with  which  the  wind  strikes  upon 
the  surface  of  the  kite.  If  a  person  were  to  run  with  a  kite  at  the 
rate  of  five  miles  an  hour,  through  a  still  air,  the  effect  would  be 
equal  to  a  windjlying  at  the  rate  of  jive  miles  an  hour  against  a 
kite  held  by  a  stationary  string. 

843.  Why  does  the  flying-top  rise  in  the  air  ? 

Because  its  wings  meet  the  air  obliquely,  just  as  the  surface  of 
the  kite  does.  And  the  ticirling  of  the  top,  causing  the  oblique 


192  THE  SEASON  WHY. 


"  Children  obey  your  parents  in  the  Lord :  for  this  is  right. 

surfaces  of  its  wing's  to  strike  the  air,  produces  the  equivalent 
effect  of  a  wind  from  the  earth  blowing  the  top  upwards. 

844.  Why  does  the  flying-top  return  to  the  earth  when  its 
rotations  are  expended  ? 

Because  the  reaction  produced  by  its  wings  striking  upon  the 
air,  is  insufficient  to  counteract  the  attraction  of  gravitation. 


Fig.  34— PLYItfG-TOP.  Fig*  35.— PEA  AND  PIPE. 

845.  Why  does  a  pea,  into  which  a  pin  has  been  stuck, 
dance  in  suspension  upon  a  jet  of  air  blown  through  a  pipe  ? 

Because  the  jet  of  air,  being  slightly  compressed  under  the 
convex  form  of  the  pea,  by  the  weight  of  the  pin,  forms  a  concave 
cup  of  air,  in  which  the  pea  rests. 

In  the  case  put,  it  is  supposed  that  the  pin  is  passed  through  the  pea  until  its 
head  comes,  in  contact  with  it.  The  pin  is  dropped  into  the  hole  of  the  pipe, 
and  the  breath  is  then  applied,  the  pipe  being  held  upright.  The  pea  will  rise 
in  the  air,  and  be  suspended  upon  the  jet,  while  the  point  of  the  pin  will  rotate 
around  the  stem  of  the  pipe.  There  are  other  methods  of  fixing  the  pin  which 
alter  the  result,  and  require  a  different  explanation  to  that  given  above. 


LESSON    XL. 

846.    Why   does  a  mouse,  painted  upon  one  side  of  a 
card,  and  a  trap  upon   the  other,  represent  to  the  eye  a 


THE   KEASON   WHY. 


193 


''  Honour  thy  father  and  thy  mother    *    *    That  it  may  be  well  with  thee,  ana 
thou  mayest  be  long  on  the  earth."— EPHESIANS  vi. 


mouse  in  a  trap  when  the  card  is  rapidly  twirled  upon   a 
string  ? 

Because  the  image  of  the  mouse  is  brought  to  the  retina  of  the 
eye  before  the  image  of  the  trap  has  passed  away.  The  two 
impressions,  therefore,  unite  upon  the  retina,  and  produce  the 
image  of  a  mouse  in  a  trap. 


3  '.—CARD  WITH 
MOUSE-TRAP. 


Fig.  37.— BHTERSE  OP  CARD 
WITH  MOUSE. 


847.  Why  ivill  a  bow  stretched  out  of  its  natural  position, 
propel  an  arrow  through  the  air  ? 

Because  its  substance,  being  highly  elastic,  the  particles  thereof 
seek  to  restore  themselves  to  their  former  state,  as  soon  as  the 
resisting  power  is  withdrawn.  The  force  derived  from  this  elas- 
ticity, is  communicated  to  the  arrow  by  the  string  against  which  it 
is  placed. 

848.  Why  is  the  arrow  propelled  forward  ? 

Because  the  elasticity  of  the  bow,  acting  equally  upon  its  two 
ends,  to  which  the  string  is  fastened,  produce  a  line  of  force  in  a 
diagonal  direction.  It  thus  illustrates  the  law,  that  when  a  body 
is  acted  upon  by  two  forces  at  the  same  time,  whose  directions  are 
inclined  to  each  other,  it  will  not  follow  either  of  them,  but  will 
describe  a  line  between  the  two. 

849.  What  forces  tend  to  arrest  the  flight  of  the  arrow? 

The  friction  of  the  air,  and  the  attraction  of  gravitation. 
9 


194  THE   BEASON   WHY. 


1  My  son,  give,  I  pray  thee,  glory  to  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  and  make  confession 
unto  him." — JOSHUA  vii. 


850.  Why  are  feathers  usually  fastened  to  the  ends  of 
arrows  ? 

Because  the  greater  friction  of  air  acting  upon  them,  opposes  the 
progress  of  that  part  of  the  arrow  in  a  greater  degree  than  it  does 
the  other  portion.  The  effect  is,  to  keep  the  point  of  the  arrow 
forward,  and  in  a  straight  line  with  its  opposite  extremity.  If  the 
arrow  were  shot  the  reverse  way  from  the  bow,  it  would  turn 
round,  in  the  course  of  its  flight,  in  consequence  of  the  friction  of 
the  air,  offering  greater  resistance  to  the  progress  of  the  feathered 
end. 


Fig.  38.— BOW  AND  AEKOW.  Fig.  39— JEW'S  HABP. 

851.  Why  does  a  Jew's  harp  give  musical  sounds  ? 
Because  the  vibrations  of  the  metal  tongue  are  communicated  to 

the  ear. 

852.  Why  will  not  the  Jew's  harp  produce  loud  sounds 
unless  it  is  applied  to  the  mouth  ? 

Because  the  vibrations  are  not  very  intense,  but  when  it  is  blown 
upon  by  the  breath,  the  air  is  pressed  upon  it,  and  the  vibrations 
are  thereby  rendered  more  powerful. 

853.  Why  does  the  alteration  of  the  arrangement  of  the 
mouth,  affect  the  formation  of  the  sounds  ? 

Because  it  sends  the  air  to  the  tongue  of  the  harp  in  a  greater  or 
letter  degree  of  compression. 


THE   BEASON   WHY. 


196 


1  Hear,  ye  children,  the  instruction  of  a  father,  and  attend  to  know  under- 
standing.."— Pno VERBS  iv. 


854.  Why  does  the  pressure  applied  to  the  handle  of  an 
air  pistol  propel  the  cork? 

Because,  between  the  cork  A  and  the  air-tight  piston  c,  there  is  a 
closed  chamber  of  air  B.  When  the  handle  D,  which  moves  the 
piston  c,  is  rapidly  pushed  in,  it  compresses  the  air  until  it  is  so 
much  condensed,  that  it  forces  out  the  cork  A. 


Pig.  40. — AIR  PISTOL,  OR  "  POP-GUN." 

855.  Why  must  the  handle  be  drawn  out,  before  the  cork 
is  placed  in  ? 

Because  otherwise  a  partial  vacuum  would  be  formed  between  A 
and  c,  and  there  would  not  be  sufficient  air  to  force  out  the  cork  by 
the  return  of  the  piston  c  D. 

856.  Why  does  water  rise  in  a  syringe  when  the  handle  is 
drawn  out  ? 

Because  the  pressure  of  the  air  on  the  water  outside  of  the 
syringe,  forces  it  into  the  space  vacated  by  the  drawing  up  of 
the  handle,  and  where,  otherwise,  a  vacuum  would  be  formed. 


Fig  41 .— SYEIKGE,  WITH  JET  OP  WATER. 

857.  Why  does  not  the  water  run  out  when  the  syringe  is 
raised  ? 

Because  the  pressure  of  the  air  upon  the  small  orifice  resists  the 
weight  of  the  water. 

858.  Why  does  the  water  leak  out,  but  not  run  ? 
Because  v/nter  has  a  tendency  always  to  'move  to  the  lowest  point. 


THE   SEASON   WHY. 


Remember  now  thy  creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth."— ECCLESIASTES  xi. 


but  as  the  air  does  not  enter  freely  the  water  cannot  escape.     It 
therefore  drops,  as  small  portions  of  the  air  enter. 

859.  Why  cannot  the  handle  be  pressed  in,  if  the  finger  is 
applied  to  the  orifice  ? 

Because  water  is  not  compressible,  like  air ;  it  must  therefore 
escape  before  the  handle  can  be  pressed  in.  Air  may  be  forced  into 
a  much  smaller  compass  than  is  natural  to  it ;  but  it  is  impossible  to 
vnmpress  water  in  any  great  degree. 


Ffc.  42.-"  SUCKEK."  Fig.  43. -HOOP. 

860.  Why  does  a  u sucker"  raise  a  stone? 

Because  underneath  the  sucker  a  vacuum  is  formed  and  the 
external  air,  pressing  on  all  sides  against  the  vacuum,  lifts  the 
stone.  The  term  "  sucker  "  is  founded  upon  the  mistaken  notion 
that  the  leather  "  sucks,"  or  "  draws"  the  stone.  That  such  is 
not  the  case  is  evident :  if,  when  the  stone  is  suspended,  a  pin's 
point  be  passed  under  the  leather,  so  as  to  open  a  small  passage 
for  the  air,  the  stone  will  drop  instantly. 

•*•  «7 

861.  Why  does  a  hoop  roll,  ivithout  Jailing  to  the  ground  ? 

Because  the  centrifugal  force  gives  it  a  motion  which  is  called  the 
tangent  to  a  circle — that  is,  a  tendency  in  all  its  parts  to  fly  off  in  a 
straight  line.  When  a  piece  of  clay  adhering  to  the  hoop  flies  off, 
it  leaves  the  hoop  in  a  line  which  is  straight  with  the  part  of 


'    THE   EEASON   WHY.  }97 

. 

"  Children  obey  your  parents  in  all  things :  for  this  is  well-pleasing  unto  the 
Lord."— COLOSSIANS  in. 

the  surface  from  which  it  was  propelled ;  this  line  is  the  tangent  U 
the  circle  of  the  hoop ;  and  the  tendency  of  all  the  parts  of  the 
hoop  to  fly  off  in  this  manner,  counteracts  the  attraction  of  the 
earth,  so  long  as  the  hoop  is  kept  in  motion. 

862.  Why  does   the  hoop,   in  falling,   make  several  side 
revolutions  ?  • 

Because  its  onward  movement,  not  being  quite  expended,  in- 
fluences the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  hoop,  and  changes  its  line  of 
direction.  The  hoop  is  also  elastic,  and  when  its  sides  strike  the 
earth,  they  spring  up  again,  and  continue  turning  until  the 
opposing  forces  are  overcome  by  the  attraction  of  gravitation. 

863.  Why  will  a   little   loy   balance   a   large   boy   on   a 
see-saw  ? 

Because  the  "  see-saw"  may  be  placed  so  that  its  ends  are  at 
unequal  distances  from  the  centre.  This  gives  the  little  boy  the 
power  of  leverage,  by  which  is  meant  the  increase  of  power,  or 
weight,  by  mechanical  means. 


Tig.  44.— BOYS  AND  "  SEE-SAW. 


864.  Why  does  the  little  boy  sink  to  the  ground  when  the 
larger  loy  slightly  Icicles  the  earth  ? 

Because  the  larger  boy,  by  kicking  against  the  earth,  opposes  by 
mechanical  force  the  attraction  of  gravitation  acting  upon  him, 
and  he  becomes  temporarily  less  attracted  to  the  earth  than  the 
little  boy. 

865.  Why  can  the  little  loy,  if  he-  choose,  keep  the  ligloy 
up,  when  once  he  is  up  ? 


198 


THE   EEASON   WHY. 


"Little  children,  let  no  man  deceive  you:   he  that  doeth  righteousness 
righteous,  even  as  he  is  righteous."—!  JOHN  in. 


Because,  as  the  big  boy  is  then  on  an  inclined  plane  with  the 
fulcrum,  or  centre  upon  which  the  see -saw  moves,  the  arm  of  the 
lever,  upon  which  the  big  boy  sits,  is  relatively  shortened,  and  be 
has  then  less  mechanical  power.  Also,  a  portion  of  the  weight  ot 
the  larger  boy  is  transmitted  along  the  lever  to  the  arm  upon 
which  the  little  boy  sits. 

866.  Why  is  the  ball 
propelled  upward,  in  the 
game  of  trap  and  ball,  when 
the  trigger  is  struck  ? 

Because,  when  the  trigger  is 
struck  at  A,  it  is  forced  down- 
wards, turning  upon  the  fulcrum 
B,  the  opposite  end,  forming  the 
spoon,  is  thereby  forced  up- 
Pig.  45.— TRAP  AND  BALL.  wards,  describing  a  small  arc,  or 

curved  line ;  but  directly  the  ball  is  set  free  from  the  spoon,  it  rises 
in  a  right  line  with  the  direction  it  was  taking,  at  the  moment  it 
nas  set  free. 


*s.  A 


Pig.  46.— BAT  AND  BALL. 

867.  What  principles  of  natural  philosophy  are  illustrated 
by  the  results  of  bat  and  ball  ? 

Percussion,  when  the  bat  strikes  the  ball ;  rotatory  motion,  when 
the  ball  is  sent  whirling  away  ;  momentum,  which  it  acquires  by 
velocity  ;  elasticity,  when  it  rebounds  from  an  object  against  which 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  199 


'  A  wise  son  makes  a  glad  father :  but  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his 
mother."— PBOVEEBS  x. 


it  strikes;  reflected  motion,  when  it  is  turned  by  a  body  upon 
which  it  impinges ;  friction,  as  it  rolls  along  the  ground ;  the 
communication  of  force,  when  it  sets  another  body  in  motion  against 
which  it  strikes ;  gravitation,  when  it  falls  to  the  earth  ;  and  inertia, 
when  it  lies  in  a  state  of  rest. 

868.   Why  do  pith-tumblers  always  pitch  upon  one  end? 

Because  the  lead  B  is  specifically  heavier  than 
the  pith  to  which  it  is  attached ;  it  therefore 
always  falls  undermost ;  and  as  the  lead  is  rounded 
off,  just  like  the  spill  of  a  top,  after  the  head  has 
oscillated  a  little,  and  expended  the  force  of  the 
momentum  of  its  fall,  it  will  settle  upon  its  centre 
of  gravity  t  or  the  point  through  which  it  is 
attracted  to  the  earth. 

869.  Why  do  the  figures  upon  the  "  Thau- 
matrope"  appear  to  dance,  wlien  they  are 
made  to  revolve  before  a  mirror  ? 

Because  the  eye,  in  looking  through  the  holes  in 
Pig.  47.  the  card,  towards  the  reflections  in  the  mirror, 

PITH-TUMBLER.  recejves  a  rapid  succession  of  impressions. 
As  the  figures  upon  the  card  are  represented  in  a  graduated 
series  of  positions — the  first  one  standing  upright,  the  second  with 
his  knees  a  little  bent,  the  third  a  little  more  bent,  as  in  the  act  of 
springing,  and  so  on,  the  figure  being  in  each  case  the  same,  but 
the  position  slightly  altered,  imparts  an  impression  to  the  mind, 
through  the  eye,  that  one  figure  is  passing  through  a  series  of 
motions. 

Thaumatrope.—T?roTOi  two  Greek  words,  meaning  wonder  and  to  turn. 

"We  have  said  enough,  we  hope,  to  show  that  even  the  play -hours  of  children 
may  be  made  instructive  to  them ;  and  that  the  simplest  toys  may  be  used  to 
illustrate  some  of  the  grandest  laws  of  nature*  Nor  may  this  kind  of  instruction 
be  confined  to  children  alone.  Grown-up  people,  whether  participators  in  the 
sports  of  youth,  or  simple  observers  of  their  games,  may  gain  instruction  for 
themselves,  and  be  the  better  teachers  of  their  children,  by  taking  an  interest 
in  their  enjoyments,  and  giving  to  their  minds,  through  the  attractiveness  of 
pastime,  a  taste  for  observing  and  estimating  the  varied  phenomena  which 
present  themselves. 

Moreover,  we  think  that  parental  government  acquires  a  greater  power  when 


200 


THE   BEASON    WHY. 


"  Jesus  said,  Suffer  little  children,  and  forbid  them  not,  to  come  unto  me ;  for 
of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven." — MATTHEW  xix. 


it  leans  towards  the  natural  desires  of  childhood,  and  wins  those  desires  into 
a  proper  direction.  Love  existing  between  parent  and  child  is  the  best  tie 
to  home,  and  the  strongest  incentive  to  duty.  There  is  also  something  in  the 
gentleness  of  childish  nature  which  may  influence  for  good  the  sterner  mould 
of  man,  too  often  warped  and  clouded  by  the  cares  of  life. 


Fig.  48.— THAUMATBOPE,  OB  "  WONDEB-TTTENEB." 

In  Kay's  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Malcolm,"  we  find  an  admirable  and  apt  passage. 
Sir  John  says : — "  I  have  been  employed  these  last  few  hours  with  Johu  Elliot, 
and  other  boys,  in  trying  how  long  we  could  keep  up  two  cricket-balls.  Lord 
Minto  caught  us.  He  says  he  must  send  me  on  a  commission  to  some  very 
young  monarch,  for  that  I  shall  never  have  the  gravity  of  an  ambassador  for  a 
prince  turned  of  twelve.  He,  however,  added  the  well-known  and  admirable 
story  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  who,  when  caught  on  all  fours  carrying  one  of  his 
children,  by  the  Spanish  envoy,  looked  up  and  said,  '  Is  your  excellency 
married  ?'  '  I  am,  and  have  a  family,'  was  the  reply.  '  "Wnll,  then,'  said  the 
monarch,  'I  am  satisfied,  and  shall  take  another  turn  round  the  room,'  and  off 
he  galloped,  with  his  son  on  his  back  flogging  and  spurring  him.  I  have 
sometimes  thought  of  breaking  myself  of  what  are  termed  boyish  habits ;  but 
reflection  has  satisfied  me  that  it  would  be  very  foolish,  and  that  I  should 
esteem  it  a  blessing  that  I  can  find  amusement  in  everything,  from  tossing  a 
cricket-ball,  to  negotiating  a  treaty  with  tiie  Emperor  of  China.  Men  who  will 
give  themselves  entirely  to  business,  and  despise  (which  is  the  term)  trifles,  are 
very  able,  in  their  general  conception  of  the  great  outlines  of  a  plan,  but  they 
feel  a  want  of  knowledge,  which  is  only  to  be  gained  by  mixing  with  all  classes 
in  the  world,  when  they  come  to  those  lesser  points  upon  which  its  successful 
execution  may  depend 


THE  SEASON   WHY.  201 


"  Whether  therefore  y9  eat,  or  drink,  or  whatsoever  ye  do,  do  all  to  the  glory  of 

God."— (  OKINTH.  X.. 


CHAPTER  XLI. 

*869.   Why  do  we  eat  food? 

Because  the  atoms  of  which  our  bodies  are  composed  are  con- 
tinually changing.  Those  atoms  that  have  fulfilled  the  purposes 
ot  nature  are  removed  from  the  system,  and,  therefore,  new  matter 
must  be  introduced  to  supply  their  place. 

870.  Why  do  we  eat  animal  and  vegetable  food  ? 
Because  their  substances   are  composed   of  oxygen,   hydrogen, 

carbon,  and  nitrogen — the  four  chemical  elements  of  which  the 
human  system  is  formed.  They  are,  therefore,  capable  of  nourish- 
ing the  body,  after  undergoing  digestion. 

871.  Why  do  we  masticate  our  food  ? 

Because  mastication  is  the  first  process  towards  the  digestion 
of  food.  Before  animal  or  vegetable  substances  can  nourish  us, 
their  condition  must  be  entirely  changed,  their  organic  states  must 
be  dissolved,  and  they  must  become  simple  matter,  in  a  homoge- 
neous mass,  consisting  of  the  four  chemical  elements  necessary  to 
nutrition,  and  they  must  again  be  restored  to  an  organic  condition. 

872.  Why  does  saliva   enter  the  mouth    when    we  are 
eating  ? 

Because,  in  addition  to  the  mechanical  grinding  of  the  food  by 
the  action  of  the  teeth,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  undergo  certain 
chemical  modifications  to  adapt  it  to  our  use.  There  are  placed, 
therefore,  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  glands,  which  secrete 
peculiar  fluids,  that  have  a  chemical  influence  upon  the  food. 

The  first  of  these  glands  are  the  salivary  glands  of  the  mouth, 
which  pour  out  a  clear  watery  fluid  upon  the  food  we  eat,  and  which 
fluid  has  been  found  to  possess  a  property  which  contributes  to  the 
digestion  of  food. 

The  moisture  afforded  by  the  salivary  secretion  is  also  necessary 
to  enable  us  to  swallow  the  food. 

873.  Why  does  the  salivary  juice  enter  the  mouth  just  at 
the  moment  that  we  are  eating  ? 

9* 


202  THE   REASON    WHY. 


i 

And  the  Lord  said  unto  him,  "Who  hath  made  man's  mouth  ?  or  who.maketh 
the  dumb,  or  the  seeing,  or  the  blind  P  have  not  I  the  Lord  ?"— EXODUS  rv. 


Because  the  glands,  which  are  buried  in  the  muscles  of  the 
mouth,  and  which  in  their  form  are  much  like  bunches  of  currants, 
are  always  full  of  salivary  secretion.  There  are  nerves  which  are 
distributed  from  the  brain  to  these  glands,  and  when  other  nerves 
which  belong  to  the  senses  of  taste,  of  sight,  or  of  feeling,  are 
excited  by  the  presence  of  food,  a  stimulus  is  imparted  to  the 
salivary  glands,  through  the  nerves  that  surround  them,  their  cells 
collapse,  and  the  juice  which  they  contain  is  poured  out  through 
their  stems,  or  ducts,  into  the  mouth. 

874.  How  do  we  know  that  impressions  imparted  to  one 
set  of  nerves,  may  le  imparted  to  another  set,  so  as  to  put  any 
particular  organ  in  action. 

Because  very  frequently  the  mere  sight  of  rich  fruit,  or  asid  sub- 
stances, will  cause  the  saliva  to  flow  freely.  In  this  case  it  is 
evident  that  the  salivary  glands  could  not  see  or  know  that  such 
substances  were  present.  An  impression  must,  therefore,  be  made 
upon  the  biain,  through  the  organ  of  vision,  and  the  desire  to 
taste  the  substances  being  awakened,  a  nervous  stimulus  is 
imparted  to  the  glands  of  the  mouth,  and  they  at  once  commence 
their  action,  as  if  food  were  present. 

875.  Why  does  food  descend  into  the  stomach  ? 

Because,  after  the  teeth,  the  tongue,  and  the  muscles  of  the 
mouth  generally,  have  rolled  the  food  into  a  soft  bolus,  it  is  con- 
veyed to  the  back  of  the  mouth,  where  it  is  set  upon  the  opening  of 
the  throat  (cesophagus).  It  does  not  then  descend  through  the 
throat  by  its  own  gravity,  because  the  throat  is  generally  in  a  com- 
pressed or  collapsed  state,  like  an  empty  tube ;  and  we  know  that 
persons  can  eat  or  drink  when  with  their  heads  downwards.  The 
cesophagus  is  formed  of  a  number  of  muscular  threads,  or  rings, 
and  each  little  thread  is  like  a  hand  ready  to  grasp  at  the  morsel 
i\at  is  coming.  As  soon  as  the  bolus  is  presented  at  the  top  of  the 
throat,  these  little  muscular  hands  lay  hold  of  it.  and  transmit  it 
downward,  passing  it  from  one  to  another,  until  it  is  conveyed 
through  the  long  passage,  to  tbe  door  of  the  stomach,  which  it 
enters. 


THE    HEASON    WHY.  203 


Remove  far  from  me  poverty  and  lies;  give  me  neither  poverty  nor  riches; 
feed  me  with  food  convenient  for  me."— PROVERBS  xxx. 


Fig.  49.— SECTION  OP  THE  STOMACH,  &C. 

A.  The  inner  coat  of  the  stomach.    (The  stomach  is  here  represented  cut 
through  its  length,  so  that  wo  can  see  its  inside.) 

B.  The  lower  extremity  of  the  throat,  or  oesophagus,  through  which  food 
enters  the  stomach. 

C.  The  passage  out  of  the  stomach,  called  the  pylorus,  where  a  muscular  con- 
traction prevents  the  escape  of  undigested  food. 

D.  The  duodenum,  and  the  ducts  through  which  the  bile  and  pancreatic 
juices  enter  and  mingle  with  our  food. 

876.  Why   do    we   not  feel   tlie  food  being  transmitted 
through  the  throat  ? 

Because  the  nerves  of  the  body  differ  in  their  powers  :  some  are 
nerves  of  feeling ',  some  of  motion,  and  others  are  nerves  of  the 
senses.  The  nerves  of  feeling  are  most  abundantly  distributed  to 
those  parts  where  feeling  is  most  useful  and  necessary  to  us.  But 
the  faculty  of  feeling  our  food  undergoing  digestion  would  be  no 
service  to  us  whatever ;  therefore  the  nerves  of  motion  are  plen- 
tifully distributed  to  the  throat  and  stomach,  but  very  few  of  the 
nerves  of  feeling — just  as  many  as  will  tell  us  when  we  eat 
anything  too  hot,  or  too  cold,  or  that  the  stomach  is  out  of  order. 

877.  Why  do  we  feel  uneasy  after  eating  to  excess? 

Because  the  stomach  is  distended,  and  presses  upon  the  other 
organs  by  which  it  is  surrounded. 


204  THE   BEA80N   WHY. 


'  Wlio  satisfieth  thy  mouth  with  good  things;  so  that  thy  youth  is  renewed 
like  the  eagles."— PSALM  cm. 


878.   Why  do  we  feel  drowsy  after  eating  heartily  ? 

Because,  while  the  stomach  is  in  action,  a,  great  proportion  of 
the  blood  of  the  body  is  drawn  towards  it,  and  as  the  blood  is 
withdrawn  from  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  they  fall  into  a  state  of 
languor. 

870.  Why  does  blood  flow  more  freely  to  the  stomach 
during  digestion  ? 

Because  the  energy  of  an  organ  is  increased  by  the  flow  of  blood, 
which  supplies  the  material  of  which  our  organs  are  composed, 
and  in  which  the  vital  essence,  supporting  life,  resides. 

880.  Why  does  excess  in  eating  bring  on  indigestion  ? 

Because  the  power  of  the  stomach  to  digest  food  is  governed  by 
the  amount  of  food  required  by  the  system.  It  seems  to  be  an 
instinct  of  the  stomach  to  hold  back  food  which  is  in  excess,  and  by 
indications  of  pain  and  disturbance  to  warn  its  master  that  excess 
kas  been  committed. 

881.  Why  is  food  digested  in  the  stomach  ? 

Because  it  enters  the  stomach  in  the  form  of  a  paste,  produced 
by  the  action  of  the  mouth  ;  and  directly  food  enters,  the  gastric 
juice,  which  is  formed  by  glands  embedded  in  the  coats  of  the 
stomach,  trickles  down  its  sides.  This  is  a  more  powerful  solvent 
than  the  salivary  juice — it  is  like  the  same  kind  of  fluid,  only  much 
stronger,  and  it  soon  turns  the  food  from  a  rough  and  crude  paste 
into  a  greyish  cream  (chyme).  The  heat  of  the  stomach  assists 
the  operation,  and  the  muscular  threads  of  the  coats  move  the 
cream  along,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  muscles  of  the  oesophagus 
brought  down  the  food. 

The  cream  is  passed  towards  the  door  which  leads  outward  from 
the  stomach  (pylorus) ;  but  if,  in  the  midst  of  the  cream,  there  are 
any  undissolved  particles  of  food,  it  closes  upon  them,  and  they 
return  again  to  the  stomach  to  be  further  changed. 

882.  Why  does  indigestion  bring  on  bilious  attacks  ? 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  £05 


"  V.'hen  thou  hast  oaten  and  art  full,  then  thou  shalt  bless  the  Lord  thy  God 
for  the  good  laud  which  he  hath  given  thee." — DETTT.  vm. 


Because  the  liver  secretes  a  fluid  to  assist  in  the  digestion  of 
food.  The  liver  is  a  gland — a  similar  organ  to  the  glands  of  the 
mouth — and  it  forms  bile  in  the  same  manner  that  they  form  the 
salivary  juice.  Only  the  liver  is  a  much  larger  gland,  and  a  much 
greater  quantity  of  blood  passes  through  it.  The  liver  pours  its 
secretion  into  the  biliary  duct  (Fig.  49)  to  mix  with  the  grey  cream 
as  it  passes  onward,  and  to  further  dissolve  it.  But  when  the 
stomach  is  excited  by  food  which  it  cannot  dissolve,  and  when  the 
owner  of  the  stomach,  disregarding  its  remonstrances,  will  persist 
in  over-eating,  or  in  eating  things  that  disagree  with  the  system, 
then  the  liver  and  the  stomach  sympathise,  and  the  muscular 
threads,  or  hands,  that  prevail  all  through  the  alimentary  organs, 
instead  of  moving  onward,  move  backward,  and  throiv  some  bile 
into  the  stomach  to  assist  to  dissolve  and  remove  the  excessive  or 
improper  food. 


CHAPTER  XLII. 

883.  Why  does  some  portion  of  the  food  ice  eat  nourish  the 
system,  while  other  portions  are  useless? 

Because  most  food  contains  some  particles  that  are  indigestible,  or 
that,  if  digested,  are  innutritions,  and  not  necessary  for  the  system. 
The  liver  is  the  organ  by  whose  secretion  the  useful  is  separated 
from  the  useless  ;  for  when  the  bile  enters  through  the  duct  (Fig. 
49)  and  mixes  with  the  grey  cream  coming  from  the  stomach,  it 
remains  no  longer  a  grey  cream,  but  turns  into  a  mass  coloured  by 
bile,  having  upon  its  surface  little  globules  of  milk,  small,  but  very 
white.  Those  minute  globules  of  milk  (chyle]  are  the  nutritious 
particles  derived  from  the  food ;  the  other  portion,  coloured  with 
bile,  is  the  useless  residue,  or  rather  the  bulk  from  ivhich  the 
nutrition  has  been  extracted. 

884.  Why  does  the  milky,  or  nutritious  matter,  separate 
from  the  innutritions,  upon  admixture  ivith  bile  ? 

Because  the  bile  contains  an  oily  matter  which  repels  the  watery 
milk  of  nutrition. 


206 


TUB   KEASON    WHY. 


"  God  hatli  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men  for  to  dwell  on  all  the  face  of 
the  earth." — ACTS  xvii. 


The  pancreatic  juice  also  enters  through  the  same  duct  with  the  bile.  But 
its  precise  use  is  not  understood.  It  is  a  fluid  much  like  the  salivary  secretion 
of  the  glands  of  the  mouth. 

A  B.  Jugular  veins  which  return 
blood  from  the  head  to  the  heart. 

C.  The  superior  venae  cava,  or 
trunk  vein,  which  pours  the  blood 
returned  from  the  upper  part  of  th<? 
system  into  the  heart.  There  is  a 
similar  large  vessel  which  meets 
this  one  and  brings  back  blood  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  they 
both  pour  the  blood  into  the  right 
side  of  the  heart. 

D  E.  The  branches  of  the  venous 
system  which  bring  back  the  blood 
Irom  the  arms. 

F  P.  The  great  aorta,  the  blood 
vessel  which  conveys  arterial  blood 
from  the  heart,  and  gives  off 
branches  that  supply  every  part 
of  the  body. 

G.  Another  large  vein  which  re- 
turns the  blood  from  the  muscles  of 
the  chest,  &c. 

H  H.  The  thoracic  duct,vfTnich  re- 
ceives the  newly  dissolved  food  from 
the  small  absorbents,  that  collect 
it  from  the  intestines.  It  conveys 
this  nutrition  (called  chyle)  upward 
along  the  back,  until  it  reaches 
where  the  duct  turns  into  the 
junction  of  two  veins,  and  pours 
its  contents  into  the  veins  bringing 
blood  back  to  the  heart.  The  nu- 
trition, therefore,  is  at  this  moment 

Fig.  50.— GREAT   VESSELS   OP  THE       mixed  with  the  venous  blood,  and 
CIRCULATION,   AND     THE    DUCT       is  sent  to  the  lungs  to  be  oxygen- 

WHICH       CONVEYS        NUTRITIVE         .      , 
MATTER  TO  THE  BLOOD. 


885.  How  is  tlie  nutrition  taken  away  from  the  bilious 
residue  ? 

The  muscular  threads  (or  hands,  as  we  figuratively  call  them) 
continue  to  push  forward  the  digested  matter  through  a  long  tube, 


THE    REASON    WHY.  201 


'  But  now  hath  God  set  the  members  in  the  body,  every  one  as  it  pleased  him." 

1  COBINTHIANS  XII. 


called  ike  alimentary  canal,  or  bowels.  This  canal  is  some  thirty 
feet  in  length,  and  is  folded  in  various  layers  across  the  abdomen,  and 
tied  to  the  edge  of  a  sort  of  apron,  which  is  gathered  up  and  fastened 
to  the  back-  bone.  All  along  this  alimentary  canal  those  muscular 
hands  are  pushing  the  digested  mass  along.  But  upon  the  coat  or 
surface  of  the  canal  there  are  millions  of  little  vessels  called  lacteals, 
which  look  out  for  the  minute  globules  of  milk  as  they  pass,  and 
absorb .  them,  which  means  that  they  pick  them  up,  and  carry  them 
away.  There  is  an  immense  number  of  these  little  vessels,  all  busily 
at  work  picking  up  food  for  the  system. 

Then  there  is  a  large  vessel,  called  the  thoracic  duct,  which  comes 
down  and  communicates  with  those  little  vessels  (it  is  a  sort  of 
overseer,  having  a  large  number  of  workmen,)  and  collects  the 
produce  of  their  toil,  and  carries  it  upwards  to  the  part  where  it 
passes/row  the  organs  of  digestion  into  the  vessels  of  circulation . 

886.  What  becomes  of  the  nutrition,  when  it  has  entered 
the  vessels  of  the  circulation  ? 

It  is  sent  through  a  large  vein  into  the  heart,  entering  that 
organ  on  the  right  side,  from  which  the  heart  propels  it  into  the 
lungs,  mixed  witli  venous  blood;  and  the  venous,  or  blue  blood,  is 
sent  into  the  lungs,  talcing  with  it  the  milk,  the  formation  of 
which  we  have  traced. 

887.  Why  are  the  venous  blood  and  the  chyle  sent  to  the 
lungs  ? 

Because  the  venous  blood,  in  its  circulation  through  the  body, 
has  parted  with  its  oxygen,  and  taken  up  carbon,  and  it  requires 
to  get  rid  of  the  carbon,  and  take  up  more  oxygen.  The  chyle, 
also,  now  combined  with  the  blood,  requires  oxygen,  and  having 
obtained  it,  is  converted  into  bright  red  blood,  and  the  blue 
blood  of  the  veins,  having  got  rid  of  its  carbon,  which  formed  the 
carbonic  acid  of  the  breath,  has  again  become  bright  red  blood.  We 
must  therefore,  in  pursuing  our  description,  cease  to  speak  of  blue, 
or  venous  blood,  and  of  white  milk,  or  chyle,  for  the  two  have  now 
combined,  and,  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  have  formed  arterial 
blood. 


WHY. 


1  My  flesh  and ifiy  heart  fainteth ;  but  God  is  the  strength  of  my  heart,  and  my 
portion  for  ever." — PSALM  LXXIII, 


888.   What  becomes  of  tlie  arterial  Hood  thus  formed? 

It  is  sent  back  from  the  lungs  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart, 
from  which  it  is  sent  into  the  great  trunk  of  the  aorta,  and  from 
thence  it  passes  into  smaller  blood-vessels,  until  it  finds  its  way  tc 
e-'-ery  part  of  the  system. 


Fig.  61.— THE  OR&AKS  OP  RESPIRATION. 

A.    The  heart. 
BB.    The  lungs. 

C.  The  aorta,  and  on  either  side  of  the  aorta  the  vessels  which  convoy  tlio 
venous  blood  to  the  lungs  to  be  oxygenised,  and  the  corresponding  vessels  which 
return  it  to  the  heart,  after  it  has  undergone  that  operation.    (For  aorta  see 
Fig.  50.) 

D.  The  trachea,,  or  large  air  passage,  through  which  the  air  passes  into  tho 
spongy  texture  of  the  lungs,  when  we  breathe. 

E  E.  Arteries  and  veins,  being  the  trunks  of  the  vessels  that  supply  tho 
head,  &c. 

889.   Why  does  the  chest  expand  when  we  breathe  ? 

Because  the  lungs  consist  of  millions  of  hollow  tubes,  and 
cells,  which,  having  been  emptied  by  throwing  off  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  nitrogen,  become  compressed,  and  the  atmospheric  nil 


THE   REASON    WHY.  209 


"All  the  while  my  breath  is  in  me,  and  the  spirit  of  God  is  in  my  nostrils,  My 
lips  shall  not  speak  wickedness,  nor  my  tongue  utter  deceit."— JOB  xxvu. 


flowing  into  these  millions  of  spaces,  and  filling  the  lungs,  just  ag 
water  fills  and  swells  a  sponge,  causes  them  to  expand,  and  occupy 
greater  room. 

890.  How  does  the  Hood  communicate  with  the  air  in  the 


Through  the  sides  of  very  minute  vessels,  of  which,  perhaps,  a 
fine  hair  gives  us  the  best  conception.  But  these  vessels  are 
twisted  and  wound  round  each  other  in  such  a  curious  manner, 
that  they  form  millions  of  cells,  and  by  being  twisted  and  wound, 
a  much  greater  surface  of  air  and  Hood  are  brought  to  act  upon 
each  other,  than  could  otherwise  be  accomplished. 

891.  Why  does  the  blood  which  is  thus  formed,  impart 
vitality  to  the  parts  to  which  it  is  sent  ? 

Because  the  blood  is  itself  vitalised — is,  in  fact,  alive,  and 
capable  of  diffusing  life  and  vitality  to  the  organisation  of  which  it 
forms  a  part. 

This  is  a  very  wonderful  fact,  but  no  less  true  than  wonderful, 
that  dead  matter  which,  but  a  little  while  ago,  was  being  ground  by 
the  teeth,  softened  by  the  saliva,  and  solved  by  the  gastric  juice  and 
bile,  has  now  acquired  life.  Nobody  can  tell  the  precise  stage  or 
moment  when  it  began  to  live.  But  somewhere  between  the  stomach 
and  the  lungs,  melted  by  the  gastric  juice,  softened  by  the  secretion 
of  the  pancreas,  separated  by  the  bile  of  the  liver,  macerated  by  the 
muscular  fibres  of  the  bowels,  taken  up  by  the  absorbents,  warmed 
by  the  heat  of  the  body,  and  aerated  in  the  lungs,  it  has  by  one,  or 
by  all  of  these  processes  combined,  been  changed  from  the  dead  to 
the  living  state,  and  now  forms  part  of  the  vital  fiuid  of  the  system. 


CHAPTER  XLIII. 

892.  Why  do  we  know  that  the  blood  has  become  endowed 
with  vital  powers  ? 

Because,  in  the  course  of  its  formation,  it  has  not  only  undergone 
change  of  conditioa  and  colour ;  but,  if  examined  now  by  the  micro- 
scope, it  will  be  found  to  consist  of  millions  of  minute  cells,  or  discs, 


210  THE    HEASON    WHY. 


"But  they  that  wait  upon  the  Lord  shall  renew  their  strength;  they  shall 

mount  up  with  wings  as  eagles ;  they  shall  run  and  not  be  weary ; 

and  they  shall  walk  and  not  faint."— ISAIAH  xx. 

which  float  in  a  watery  fluid.  The  paste  produced  by  mastication  con- 
sisted of  a  crude  admixture  of  the  atoms  of  food ;  the  cream  (chyme) 
formed  from  this  in  the  stomach,  presents  to  the  microscope  a 
heterogeneous  mass  of  matter,  exhibiting  no  appearance  whatever  of 
a  new  organic  arrangement ;  the  milk  (chyle)  which  is  formed  in 
the  intestines  is  found  to  contain  a  great  -  number  of  very  small 
molecules,  which  probably  consist  of  some  fatty  matter ;  as  the 
chyle  progresses  towards  the  thoracic  duct  (Fig.  50),  it  appjars  to 
contain  more  of  these,  and  slight  indications  present  themselves  of 
the  approach  towards  a  new  organic  condition. 

But  wherever  vitalisation  begins,  no  human  power  can  say 
with  confidence.  Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  blood  is  both 
organised  and  vitalised,  and  that  it  consists  of  corpuscles,  or  little 
cells,  enclosing  matters  essential  to  life. 

893.  Why  does  the  blood  circulate  ? 

Because  all  the  bones,  muscles,  blood-vessels,  nerves,  glands, 
cartilages,  &c.,  of  which  the  body  is  composed,  are  constantly  under- 
going a  change  of  substance.  It  is  a  condition  of  their  life,  health, 
and  strength,  that  they  shall  be  "  renewed,"  and  the  blood  is  the  great 
source  of  the  materials  by  which  the  living  temple  is  kept  in  repair. 

894.  How  is  the  body  renewed  by  the  blood  ? 

Every  drop  of  blood  is  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  corpuscles, 
each  of  which  contains  some  of  the  elements  essential  to  the  wants 
of  the  system. 

Let  us,  to  simplify  the  subject,  consider  the  blood  vessels  of  the 
body  to  be  so  many  canals,  on  the  banks  of  which  a  number  of 
inhabitants  live,  and  require  constant  sustenance.  The  corpuscles 
of  the  blood  are  the  boats  which  are  laclen  with  that  sustenance, 
and  when  the  heart  beats,  it  is  a  signal  for  them  to  start  on  their 
journey.  Away  they  go  through  the  arch  of  the  great  acrta,  and 
some  of  the  earliest  branches  which  it  sends  off  convey  blood  to 
the  arms.  We  will  now  for  a  moment  dismiss  the  word  artery,  and 
keep  up  the  figure  of  a  system  of  canals,  with  a  number  of  towns 
upon  their  banks. 

Well,  away  go  a  fleet  of  boats  through  the  aorta  canal,  until 
they  reach  a  point  which  approaches  Shoulder-town  -t  some  of  the 


THE   SEASON    WHY. 


211 


1  Though  hand  join  in  hand,  the  wicked  shall  not  be  unpunished ;  but  the  seed 
of  the  righteous  shall  be  de  ivered."— PEOVEBBS  xxi. 


boats  pass  into  the  axillary  canal  and  Shoulder-town  is  supplied ; 
the  other  boats  proceed  along  the  humeral  canal  until  they  ap- 
proach Elbow-town,  when  another  division  of  the  boats  pass  into 
other  branch  canals  and  supply  the  wants  of  the  neighbourhood ; 
the  others  have  passed  into  the  ulnar  canals  and  the  radial  canals 
until  they  have  approached  Wrist-town  and  Hand-town,  which  are 
respectively  supplied ;  and  then  the  two  canals  have  formed  a  junc- 
tion across  the  palm  and  supplied  Palm-town,  where  they  have 
given  off  branches  and  boats  to  supply  the  four  Finger-towns,  and 
Thumb-town. 

Between  A  and  B  the  brachial 
canal,  which  gives  off  branches  to 
supply  Elbow-town,  &c.,  and  then 
divides  into  two  main  courses,  di- 
verging to  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
arm,  and  sending  a  smaller  canal 
down  the  centre. 

D  D.  The  point  where  the  ulnar 
canal  and  the  radial  canal,  after 
having  passed  and  supplied  Wrist- 
town,  form  a  junction,  running 
through  Palm-town,  and  in  their 
course  giving  off  branches  to  supply 
the  four  Finger-towns  and  Thumb- 
town. 

For  further  explanations  of  the 
engraving,  see  57. 

895.  How  does  the  blood 
return  to  the  lungs,  after  it 
has  reached  the  extremities  ? 
The  veins  corstitute  a  sys- 
tem of  vessels  corresponding 
to  the  arteries.  We  may  say 
that  the  arteries  form  the  down 
canal,  and  the  veins  the  up 
canal.  The  arteries,  com- 
mencing in  the  great  trunk  oi 
the  aorta,  branch  off  into  large 
and  then  into  smaller  tubes, 
until  they  form  capillary  or 
5-2.  —  ILLUSTRATION  OP  TUB  hair-like  vessels,  penetrating 

SYSTEM  OP  CANALS  THAT  SUPPLT 
TUK    FOUK-AIiM   WITH   BLOOD. 


212  THE    SEASON   WHY. 


'  As  for  man  his  days  are  as  grass ;  as  a  flower  of  the  field  so  he  flourisheth."— 
PSALM  cm. 


The  capillary  extremities  of  the  arteries,  unite  with  the  capillary 
extremities  of  the  veins,  and  the  blood  passes  from  the  one  set  of 
vessels  into  the  other.  As  the  arteries  become  smaller  from  the 
point  where  they  receive  the  blood,  so  the  veins  grow  larger ;  the 
venous  capillaries,  pour  their  contents  into  small  vessels,  and  these 
again  into  larger  ones,  until  the  great  venous  trunks  are  reached, 
and  the  blood  is  passed  again  into  the  heart  as  at  first  described. 
(Fig.  50.) 

896.  Why  do   we  see   Hue  marks  upon  our  arms   and 
hands  ? 

Because  large  veins  lie  underneath  the  skin,  through  which  the 
blood  of  the  fingers  and  hand  is  conveyed  back  to  the  heart. 

897.  WJiy    are    the    veins    more    perceptible    than   the 
arteries  ? 

Because  the  arteries  are  buried  deeper  in  the  flesh,  for 
protection.  It  would  be  more  dangerous  to  life  to  sever  by 
accident  an  artery  than  a  vein.  A  person  might  bleed  longer 
from  a  vein  than  from  an  artery,  without  endangering  life  ;  because 
the  arteries  supply  the  life  sustaining  blood.  The  Almighty, 
therefore,  has  buried  the  arteries  for  safety. 

898.  Why  when  we  prick  the  flesh  with  a  needle  does  it 
bleed? 

Because  the  capillary  arteries  and  veins  are  so  fine,  and  are  so 
thickly  distributed  all  over  the  body,  that  not  even  the  point  of  a 
needle  can  enter  the  flesh  without  penetrating  the  coats  of  several 
of  these  small  vessels. 

899.  What  occurrs  during  the  circulation  of  the  blood  ? 

Not  only  do  the  various  parts  to  which  the  boats  are  sent  take 
from  them  whatever  they  require,  but  the  boats  collect  all  those 
matters  for  which  those  parts  have  no  further  use.  The  bones, 
the  nerves,  the  muscles,  &c.,  all  renew  themselves  as  the 
boats  pass  along;  and  all  give  something  to.  the  boats  to 
bring  back.  One  of  the  chief  exchanges  is  that  of  oxygen  for 


THE   REASON    WHY.  213 


w  Let  every  thing  that  hath  breath  praise  the  Lord.    Praise  ye  the  Lord."— 
PSALM  CL. 


carbon,  by  which  a  gentle  heat  is  diffused  throughout  the  sys- 
tem. It  is  for  this  purpose  that  fresh  air  is  so  constantly 
necessary. 

But  other  exchanges  take  place.  The  blood,  in  addition  to 
oxygen  and  carbon,  contains  hydrogen  and  nitrogen.  But  it  contains 
its  four  elements  in  various  forms  of  combination,  producing  the 
following  materials  for  the  use  of  the  body  :  of  1 ,000  parts  of  blood, 
about  779  are  tvater ;  141  are  red  globules ;  69  are  albumen ;  3  are 
fibrin ;  2  are  fatty  matter ;  6  are  various  salts. 

Albumen  and  fibrin  are  a  kind  of  flesh  imperfectly  formed,  and 
probably  are  chiefly  used  in  repairing  the  muscles.  The  red 
corpuscles  contain  the  oxygen  which  goes  to  combine  with  the 
superabundant  carbon,  and  develope  heat ;  the  fatty  matters 
probably  repair  the  fatty  tissues,  and  glands  that  are  of  a  fatty 
nature  ;  and  the  various  salts  contribute  to  the  bones,  and  to  the 
chemical  properties  of  those  secretions  which  are  formed  by  the 
glands,  &c.,  while  the  great  proportion  of  water  is  employed  in 
cleansing,  softening,  and  cooling  the  whole,  or  the  living  edifice, 
and  it  is  "the  medium  through  which  all  the  nutrition  of  the  body  is 
distributed. 

900.  Why  do  we  feel  the  pulse  beat  ? 

Because  every  time  that  the  heart  contracts  it  send  a  fresh  supply 
of  blood  to  the  blood-vessels,  and  the  motion  thus  imparted  creates 
a  general  pulsation  throughout  the  system  :  but  it  is  more  distinctly 
perceived  at  the  pulse,  because  there  a  rather  large  artery  lies  near 
to  the  surface. 

901.  What  becomes  of  the  matter  collected  ly  the  blood  in 
the  course  of  its  circulation  ? 

We  have  already  explained  that  carbon  is  thrown  off  from  the 
lungs  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  But  there  are  many  other 
matters  to  be  separated  from  the  venous  blood,  and  its  purification 
is  assisted  by  the  action  of  the  liver,  which  is  supplied  with  a  large 
vein,  called  the  portal  vein,  which  conveys  into  the  substance  of  the 
liver,  a  large  proportion  of  the  venous  blood,  from  which  that  organ 
draws  off  those  matters  wliich  form  the  bile,  and  other  matters 
which  are  transmitted  with  the  bile  to  the  bowels.  The  liver  and 


214 


THE    SEASON    WHY. 


"Thy  hands  have  made  me  and  fashioned  me:  give  me  understanding,  that  I 
may  learn  thy  commandments."  —  PSALM  cxix. 


the  lungs,  therefore,  are  the  great  purifiers  of  the  venous  blood. 
But  there  are  also  smaller  organs  that  assist  in  the  same  work. 


Fig.  53.— SHOWING  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OP  BLOOD  THEOUGH  BRANCHES  OP 
THE  AOETA. 

A.  The  aorta. 

B.  Branches  given  off  for  the  aorta  to  supply  one  portion  of  the  intestines. 

C.  Branches  given  off  by  the  aorta  to  supply  other  portions  of  the  intestines. 
A  complete  communication  maybe  traced  between  these  vessels  from  the  origin 
of  one  to  that  of  the  other. 

D.  The  pancreas,  or  sweetbread,  a  large  gland  that  forms  the  pancreatic  jnice, 
which  it  pours  in  through  the  duct.    See  Fig.  50. 

E  E  B.  The  large  intestines,  forming  the  termination  of  the  alimentary  canal 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

902.  Why  when  we  cut  our  flesh  does  it  heal  f 


THE    EEASON   WHY.  215 


"  And  God  said,  Let  us  make  man  in  our  own  image,  after  our  likeness ;  and  let 
them  have  dominion  over  the  flsb  of  the  sea,  and  over  the  fowl  of  the  air,  and 
over  the  cattle,  and  over  all  the  earth,  and  over  every  creeping  thing." — GEN.  I. 

Because  the  blood  coagulates  over  the  cut,  and  throws  out  a  kind 
of  lymph,  which  forms  an  incipient  flesh,  and  excludes  the  air  while 
the  blood-vessels  are  engaged  in  repairing  the  part. 

903.  Why,  since  all  the  substance  of  the  lody  undergoes 
change,  do  we  preserve  the  same  features   throughout  our 
lives  ? 

Because  our  substance  changes  in  the  minutest  atoms ;  and  each 
separate  atom  has  a  life  of  itself,  the  maintenance  of  which  pre- 
serves the  unity  and  permanence  of  the  whole. 

904.  Why  do  moles  upon  the  skin  continue  permanent, 
while  bruises  and  wounds  disappear  ? 

Because  moles  are  themselves  organised  formations,  and  repair 
themselves  just  as  any  other  part  of  the  body  does.  But  bruises 
and  wounds  are  the  result  of  accidental  disturbances,  which  in  course 
of  time  become  removed. 

905.  Why  do  the  marks  of  deep  cuts  sometimes  remain? 
If  the  cut  is  so  deep  and  serious  as  to  destroy  the  system  of 

vessels  which  supply  and  repair  the  part,  then  it  is  evident  that  they 
cannot  work  so  perfectly  as  when  in  their  sound  condition.  Their 
functions  are,  therefore,  interfered  with,  and  instead  of  having 
flesh  uniform  with  the  other  parts  of  the  system;  there  results  a 
tear,  or  a  wound  imperfectly  repaired. 

906.  Why  when  we  hold  our  hands  against  a  candle- 
light do  we  perceive  a  beautiful  crimson  colour  ? 

Because  the  fluids  and  vessels  of  the  body  are  in  some  degree 
transparent,  and  the  thin  textures  of  the  sides  of  the  fingers  allows 
the  light  to  pass,  and  shows  the  beautiful  crimson  colour  of  the 
blood. 

If  the  web  of  a  frog's  foot  be  brought  iu  the  field  of  a  good  microscope,  and 
.set  against  a  strong  light,  the  blood  may  be  seen  in  circulation,  with  the  most 
wonderful  effect.  Each  vessel,  and  every  globule  of  blood,  can  be  seen  most 
distinctly,  and  the  junction  of  the  arteries  and  veins  can  be  clearly  traced.  The 
little  boats  of  nutrition  may  be  seen  chasing  each  other  in  rapid  succession, 
and  when  the  animal  exerts  itself  to  escape,  the  flow  of  the  blood  increases  ;  and 
not  unfrequently,  under  these  circumstances  of  agitation,  have  we  seen 
two  or  three  blood  discs  struggling  together  to  enter  a  vessel  that  was  too 
small  for  them.  Again  and  again  they  have  endeavoured  to  find  a  passage,  until 
one  of  them  happening  to  slip  forward,  got  away,  followed  by  the  others  1 


216  ^HE   SEASON   WHY. 

"' Know  ye  that  the  Lord  ho  is  God:  it  is  he  that  hath  made  us,  and  not  \\* 
ourselves :  we  are  his  people,  and  the  sheep  of  his  pasture."— PSALH  c. 

907.  Why  does  the  flesh  underneath  the  nails  look  red  ? 

Because  the  transparent  texture  of  the  nails  enables  us  to  see  the 
colour  of  the  vascular  structure  that  lies  underneath  the  skin. 
Vascular— Full  of  vessels.     In  this  instance,  full  of  capillary  blood-vessels. 

908.  Why  have  we  nails  at  our  fingers'  ends  ? 

Because  they  give  firmness  to  the  touch,  and  enable  us  to  apply  the 
extremities  of  the  fingers  to  many  useful  purposes  for  which  they 
would  otherwise  be  unfitted.  They  enable  us  to  press  the  tips  of  the 
fitigers,  where  the  highest  degree  of  sensitiveness  prevails,  so  as  to 
bring  the  largest  amount  of  nervous  perception  into  the  sense  of 
touch. 

909.  Why  do  white  spots  occur  upon  the  nails  ? 
Because  the  vascular  surface  underneath  is  attached  to  the  horny 

texture  of  the  nail ;  but  by  knocks  and  other  causes,  the  nail  some- 
times separates  in  small  patches  from  the  membrane  below,  and 
becomes  dry  and  opaque. 

910.  Why  is  there  a  circular  line  of  whitish  colour  at 
the  root  of  the  nail  ? 

Because  there  the  nail  is  newly  formed  by  the  vascular  substance 
out  of  which  it  grows,  and  has  not  yet  assumed  its  proper  horny 
and  transparent  nature. 

911.  Why  is  the  eye-ball  white  ? 

Because  the  blood-vessels  that  supply  its  surface  are  so  very  fine 
that  they  do  not  admit  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood. 

912.  Why  does  the  eye-ball  sometimes  become  blood-shot  ? 

Because,  under  exciting  causes  of  inflammation,  the  blood-vessels 
become  distended,  and  the  red  corpuscles  enter,  producing  a  net- 
work of  red  blood-vessels  across  the  white  surface  of  the  eye. 

913.  Why  are  the  lips  red? 

Because  the  lips  are  formed  of  the  mucous  membrane  that  lines  the 
body  internally,  and  covers  the  surface  of  most  of  the  internal  parts. 
This  membrane  con:ains  a  great  number  of  minute  red  vessels, 
which  give  softness  and  moisture  to  the  surface.  A  very  beautiful 


THE    KEASOS    \VJIY.  217 


"  Hast  thou  not  known,  hast  thou  not  hoard,  that  the  everlasting  God,  the 

Lord,  the  Creator  of  the  ends  of  the  earth,  fainteth  not,  neither  is  weary  ? 

there  is  no  searching  of  his  understanding  "—ISAIAH  XL. 

illustration  of  the  softness,  moisture,  and  delicate  colour  of  the 
mucous  membrane  is  afforded  by  turning  up  and  examining  the 
under  surface  of  the  upper  eye -lid. 

914.  Why  do  delicate  persons  look  pale  and  languid  ? 

Because,  generally  from  the  want  of  exercise  and  fresh  air,  their 
blood  is  deficient  of  the  healthy  proportion  of  red  corpuscles. 

915.  Why  does  exercise  and  fresh  air  impart  to  healthy 
persons  a  red  and  fresh  appearance  ? 

Because  the  redness  of  the  blood  is  due  to  the  amount  of  oxygen 
which  it  contains,  and  air  and  exercise  oxygenize  the  blood,  and 
diffuse  it  throughout  the  system. 

916.  Sow  is  the  blood  propelled  through  the  arteries  ? 

By  the  very  powerful  contraction  (and  alternate  dilation)  of  the 
thick  muscles  of  the  heart,  assisted  also  by  the  muscular  cords  of  the 
blood-vessels  themselves,  and  in  many  instances  by  the  compression  of 
the  muscles  in  which  the  arteries  lie  embedded. 

917.  Why  are  the   capillary  arteries  capable  of  receiving 
the  great    quantity   of   Hood  sent  out   through   the  larger 
vessels  ? 

Because  the  capillary  vessels  are  so  numerous,  that  though  they 
are  infinitely  smaller,  they  are  capable  of  receiving  in  their  minute 
tubes  the  whole  of  the  quantity  of  blood  transmitted  to  them  through 
the  larger  vessels. 

918.  Why,  when  we  sit  with  our  legs  crossed,  do  we  see 
the  foot  that  is  raised  move  at  regular  intervals  ? 

Because  the  pressure  upon  the  muscles  of  the  leg  retards  the 
progress  of  the  blood  until  it  forces  itself  through  the  compressed 
vessels,  and  thereby  imparts  a  pulsation  which  moves  the  leg  and 
foot. 

919.  Why  are  capillary  blood-vessels  found  in  every  part 
of  the  system  ? 

Because  it  is  through  these  small  vessels  alone  that  the  substances 
of  the  body  are  renewed  and  changed.    Even  the  larger  blood- 
10 


218  THE    REASON    WHY. 


"  All  my  bones  shall  say,  Lord,  who  is  like  unto  thee,  which  deliverest  the  pooi 

from  him  that  is  too  strong  for  him,  yea,  the  poor  and  the  needy 

from  him  that  spoileth  him  ?"— PSALM  xxxv. 

vessels  do  not  sustain  themselves  upon  the  blood  ivhich  they  contain, 
but  receive  into  their  coats  numerous  capillary  vessels  by  which 
they  are  nourished. 

920.  How  much  Hood  does  the  human  body  contain  ? 
From  twenty -five  to  thirty -five  pounds.     (See  623.) 

921.  Sow  does  the  Hood  ascend  in  the  veins,  in  opposition 
to  gramtation  ? 

In  addition  to  the  muscular  coats  of  the  veins,  and  the  influence 
of  muscular  action  upon  them,  there  are  in  the  veins  numerous 
semi-circular  valves,  which  are  not  found  in  the  arteries.  These 
valves  extend  from  the  sides  of  the  veins  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
allow  the  free  passage  of  the  blood  upwards,  but  a  backward  motion 
of  the  blood  would  expand  the  cup-like  valves  and  stop  the  passage  ; 
so  that  the  blood  can  only  move  in  one  direction,  and  that  towards 
the  heart. 

922.  How  frequently  does  the  total  amount  of  Hood  circu- 
late through  the  system  ? 

The  blood  circulates  once  through  the  body  in  about  two  minutes. 
If,  therefore,  we  estimate  the  amount  of  blood  at  twenty-four  pounds, 
it  follows  that  no  less  than  twelve  pounds  of  blood  pass  through  the 
heart  every  minute ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  if  the  blood  moved  with 
equal  force  in  a  straight  line  it  would  pass  through  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  in  a  minute. 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

923.  How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  human  body  f 
There  are  two  hundred  and  forty-six,  and  they  are  apportioned 

to  the  various  parts  of  the  body  in  the  following  numbers : — 
Head      *v.     "],."'    .     '   ,  ;     .        .8 
Ears        .:..'-    -  ,        .     >£:      .     f  .      6 
Face       ,-•'.  -'•'•*       •'.'•••  $$#)•.,  .     .    .     14 

Teeth 32 

Back-bone  and  its  base        .        .        .26 
Chest,  &c.  ,    26 


THE   REASON   WHY.  219 


"Our  bones  are  scattered  at  the  grave's  mouth,  as  when  one  cutteth  and 
cleaveth  wood  upon  the  earth."— PSALM  CXLI. 


Arms  and  Hands        .        *        .        .64 

Legs  and  Feet  •  '-,»•        •         •     62 

Small  moveable  bones          ...       8 

924.   Of  what  substances  are  the  bones  composed  ? 

One  hundred  parts  of  bone  consist  of 

Cartilage        .        .        »        .        .  3217  parts 
Blood-vessels        *.    -    .        «        '.      T13      „ 

Carbonate  of  lime    ....  11*30      „ 

Phosphate  of  lime  .        .        .  51'04      „ 

Fluate  of  lime 2'00      „ 

Phosphate  of  Magnesia  .         .       1'16      „ 

Soda,  chloride  of  sodium         .         .       1'20 


100-00 

925.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  bones  ? 

They  protect  soft  and  delicate  organs  ;  they  form  a  framework  to 
vhich  the  organs  are  attached,  and  by  which  they  are  kept  in  their 
places;  and  they  supply  a  mechanism,  by  which  the  motions  of  the 
body  are  produced,  in  combination  with  the  muscles. 

926.  Why  is  the  brain  placed  within  the  skull  ? 

Because  that  delicate  and  vital  organ,  being  the  centre  and  the 
root  of  the  nervous  system,  requires  a  position  of  the  greatest  safety. 

927.  Why  are  the   bones   that    constitute   the  vertebrae 
(back-bone)  \ollowed  out,  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  groove? 

Because  thiough  that  groove  the  spinal  cord  passes  out  from  the 
brain.  Being  in  the  centre  of  that  column  of  bones,  the  spinal  cord 
receives  from  them  a  similar  protection  to  that  which  the  brain 
obtains  from  the  skull. 

928.  Why  is  the  head  set  upon  the  neck  ? 

Because  in  that  position  it  obtains  the  freest  motion,  can  turn  in 
any  direction,  and  is  placed  relatively  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
body,  in  that  situation  where  it  acquires  the  greatest  possible 
advantage. 

929.  Why  are  the  eyes  placed  in  the  sockets  of  the  skull  ? 
Because  the  bones  of  the  skull  afford  protection  to  the  delicate 


220 


THE    EEASOJS     WHY. 


"Thus  saith  the  Lord  God  unto  these  bones,  Behold  I  will  cause  breath  to  enter 
into  you,  and  ye  shall  live : 


and  complicated  structure  of  the  eyes,  and  supply  points  of 
attachment,  and  grooves,  by  which  the  muscles  are  enabled  to  turn 
the  eyes  freely,  and  thereby  extend  the  field  of  vision. 

930.    Why  are  the  bones  of  the  skull  arched  ? 

Because  in  that  form  they  acquire  greater  strength,  and  hence 
the  utmost  degree  of  safety  is  combined  with  extreme  lightness  of 
material. 


Fig.  54.— VIEW  OP  THE  BONES  OF  THE  THORAX,  OB  CHEST,  SHOWING  THE 
PROTECTION  AFFORDED  TO  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  AND  BESPIHA- 
TION. 

A.    The  sternum,  or  breast-bone. 

B  B.  The  ribs,  which  rise  a  little  from  behind,  and  fall  as  they  come  for- 
ward, by  which  they  acquire  a  greater  flexibility. 

C  0.  The  cartilaginous  points  of  the  short  ribs,  by  which  their  expansive 
and  compressive  powers  are  much  increased. 

D  E.    Part  of  the  vertebral  column,  or  back-bone. 

931.  Why  are  the  bones  of  the  skull  divided  by  sutures 
(seams),  with,  points  which, fit  into  each,  other  like  small  teeth  ? 

Because,  by  that  arrangement,  concussions  of  the  skull,  which 
might  be  fatal  to  the  brain,  are  deadened,  and  injuries  from 
accident  greatly  modified. 


.HE    SEASON    WHY. 


221 


"And  I  will  lay  the  sinews  upon  you,  and  will  bring  up  flesh  upon  you,  and 

cover  you  with  skin,  and  put  breath  in  you,  and  ye  shall  live  ;  and  ye  shall  know 

that  I  am  the  Lord."— EZEKIEL  xxxvii. 

932.  Why  are  the  heart,  lungs,  fyc.,  placed  within  the  chest  ? 
Because   the  functions   of  those   organs    require    considerable 

space,  while  their  importance  in  the  system  of  life,  renders  it 
essential  that  they  should  be  securely  protected  from  the 
probabilities  of  accident. 

933.  Why  are  the  heart  and  lungs  enclosed  for  protection 
in  a  series  of  ribs,  and  not  in  a  close  case,  like  the  brain  ? 

Because,  by  the  inflation  and  contraction  of  the  lungs,  their 
capacity  is  constantly  changing.  When  man  takes  a  moderate 
inspiration,  he  inhales  about  thirty  cubic  inches  of  air,  and  the 
lungs  increase  in  size  one-eighteenth  of  their  whole  capacity. 
Consequently,  were  they  enclosed  in  a  frame  of  fixed  dimensions,  it 
must  needs  be,  to  that  extent  at  least,  larger  than  is  necessary, 
when  the  frame  is  made  to  dilate  and  contract  with  the  capacity  of 
the  lungs. 

So  perfect  is  the  Almighty  contrivance,  that  not  only  are  the  ribs 
made  to  protect  the  lungs,  but,  by  their  elasticity,  and  the  contrac- 
tions and  dilations  of  the  muscles  which  lie  between  them,  they  assist 
the  lungs  in  their  labours,  and  work  with  them  in  perfect  harmony. 

934.  Why  are  the  bones  of  the  arms, 
legs,  fyc.,  made  hollow  ? 

Because  lightness  is  thereby  combined  with 
strength.  There  is  a  provision  by  which,  in 
the  extremities  of  bones,  where  an  enlarged 
surface  is  required,  lightness  is  still  com- 
bined with  the  necessary  degree  of  strength. 

The  bones  are  made  up  of  a  cellular  forma- 
tion ;  and  this  generally  occurs  in  parts 
which  are  much  called  into  action,  in  the 
various  movements  of  the  body. 

A.  Lower  part  of  the  bone  of  the  thigh. 

B.  Head  of  the  bone  of  the  leg. 

C.  The  knee  cap,  showing  its  relation  to  the  other 

THE  CELLULAR  STEUC-    bones,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  enclosed  by  the 
TURE     OP    BONE,    BY    tendons  seen  at  Fig.  58. 

D.  A  pad  of  fat,  lessening  the  frictipn  of  the  bones, 
and  modifying  the  shocks  produced  by  jumping,  Ac. 


WHICH  LIGHTNESS  AND 


222  THE   SEASON 


"  Again  he  said  unto  me,  Prophesy  upon  these  bones,  and  say  unto  them,  O  y« 
dry  bones,  hear  the  word  of  the  Lord."— EZEKIEL  xxxvu. 


935.  Why  are  the  'bones  of  the  arms  and  legs  formed  in 
long  shafts  ? 

Because  a  considerable  leverage  is  gained,  by  which  the  advan- 
tages of  quickness  of  motion,  and  increase  of  mechanical  power, 
are  secured. 

936.  Why  are  the  bones  of  the  hands  and  feet  numerous 
and  small  ? 

Because  the  motions  of  the  hands  and  feet  are  very  varied  and 
complicated.  There  are  no  less  than  twenty-eight  bones  in  one 
hand  and  wrist;  and  about  as  many  in  a  foot  and  ankle.  To 
these  are  fastened  a  great  number  of  ligaments  and  muscles,  by 
which  their  varied  compound  movements  are  controlled.  But  for 
the  complexity  of  the  mechanism  of  our  hands  and  feet,  our  motions 
would  be  extremely  awkward,  and  many  of  the  valuable  mechanical 
inventions  which  now  benefit  mankind,  could  never  have  been 
introduced.  The  bones  of  the  hands  and  feet  are  in  number  equal 
to  one-half  of  the  whole  of  the  bones  of  the  body. 


CHAPTER    XLVI. 

937.  What  are  ligaments  ? 

Ligaments  consist  of  bands  and  cords  of  a  tough,  fibrous,  and 
'smooth  substance,  by  which  the  bones  are  bound  together  and  held 
in  their  places,  allowing  them  freedom  to  move,  and  supplying 
smooth  surfaces  over  which  they  glide. 

938.  W  hy  are  the  joints  bound  with  ligaments  ? 

Because  the  bones  would  otherwise  be  constantly  liable  to  slip 
from  their  placet. 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  223 


1  That  which  *a  born  of  the  flesh  is  flesh ;  and  that  which  is  born  of  the  Spirit 
is  spirit." — JOHN  ill. 


939.   What  are  tendons  ? 

Tendons  are  long  cords,  of  a  substance  similar  in  its  nature  to 
cartilage,  by  which  the  muscles  are  attached  to  the  bones. 


Fig.  86.— SHOWING  A  BALL  AND  SOCKET  JOINT,  AND  THE  MANNEB  IK  WHICH 
LIGAMENTS  AEE  EMPLOYED  TO  HOLD  BONES  IN  THEIE  POSITIONS. 

A.  The  ball,  or  head  of  the  thigh  bone. 

B.  The  socket,  showing  the  ligament  in  the  socket,  which  holds  the  head  of 
the  bone  in  its  place,  but  allows  it  free  motion. 

C.  JJigaments  tied  from  bone  to  bone,  giving  firmness  to  the  parts. 

940.  Why  are  tendons  used  to  attach  the  muscles  to  the 
bones  ? 

Because,  by  this  arrangement,  the  large  muscles  "by  which  the 
extremities  are  moved,  may  be  placed  at  some  distance  from  the 
bones  upon  which  they  act,  and  thus  the  extremities,  instead  of 
being  large  and  clumsy,  are  small  and  neat. 

941.  How  many  muscles  are  there  in  the  human  body  ? 
There  are   about  four  hundred    and,  forty-six    muscles  that 

have  been  dissected  and  described,  and  the  actions  of  which  are 
perfectly  understood.  But  there  is  probably  a  much  larger  number 
of  muscles,  and  of  compound  actions  of  muscles,  than  the  skill  of 
man  has  been  able  to  recognise. 


224 


THE   BEASON    WHY. 


**  All  flesh  is  not  the  same  flesh:  but  there  is  one  kind  of  flesh  of  men,  another 
flesh  of  beasts,  another  of  fishes,  and  another  of  birds."— COEINTHIANS  xvi. 


57.  _  ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE 
BELATION  OP  MUSCLES,  TEUTONS, 
AND  BONES. 


942,  What  is  the  consti- 
tution of  a  muscle  ? 

Every  muscle  is  made  up  of 
a  number  of  parallel  fleshy 
fibres,  or  threads,  which  are 
bound  together  by  a  smooth 
and  soft  tissue,  forming1  a 
sheath  or  case  to  the  muscle, 
and  enabling  it  to  glide  freely 
over  the  surfaces  upon  which 
it  moves. 


A.  Lower  extremity  of  the  muscle 
which  draws  the  fore-arm  towards 
the  upper-arm,  bends  the  elbow, 
raises  the  hand  to  the  head,  and  is 
powerfully  exerted  in  pulling,  lift- 
ing, &c. 

0.  A  muscle  which  gives  off  four 
long  tendons,  which  pass  under  the 
ligaments  of  the  wrist,  one  to  each 
finger,  and  by  which  the  fingers  are 
bent  upon  the  palm  of  the  hand,  as 
in  grasping,  &c. 

F.  Tendon  of  a  muscle  which 
draws  the  little  finger  and  the  thumb 
towards  each  other. 

The  ligaments  may  be  seen  enfold- 
the  finger-joints,  and  also  crossing 
the  wrist,  underneath  the  tendons. 


The  muscles  are  compressed  into  tendinous  cords  at  their  ends. 
by  which  they  are  united  to  the  bones. 

They  are  arranged  in  pairs,  having  reciprocal  actions — each 
muscle  having  a  companion  muscle  by  which  the  part  which  it 
moves  is  restored  to  its  original  position,  when  the  influence  of  the 
first  muscle  is  withdrawn,  and  the  stimulus  given  to  bring  back  the 
part. 

943.   Why  can  we  raise  our  fingers  ? 

Because  muscles  which   lie  on  the  fore-arm,  and  have  their 


THE   BEASON    WHY.  225 


"  Thou  hast  clothed  me  with  skin  and  flesh,  and  hast  fenced  ine  with  bones  and 
sinews."— JOB  xi. 


tendons  fastened  at  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  contract,  and  by 
becoming  shorter,  draw  the  fingers  upward,  and  towards  the 
arm. 

944.  Why  can  we  throw  back  the  fluff ers  after  they  have 
been  raised? 

Because  the  muscles  at  the  back  of  the  arm,  whose  tendons  are 
attached  to  the  back  of  the  fingers,  contract  and  restore  them 
to  their  former  position. 

945.  What  degree  of  strength  do  the  muscles  possess  ? 

The  degree  of  strength  of  a  muscle  depends  upon  the  healthy 
condition  of  the  muscle,  the  amount  of  stimulus  which  it  receives  at 
the  time  of  exertion,  and  the  manner  in  which  its  powers  are 
applied*. 

The  great  muscle  of  the  calf  of  the  leg  has  been  found,  when 
removed  from  a  dead  body,  to  be  capable  of  sustaining  a  weight 
equal  to  seven  times  the  weight  of  the  entire  body 

But  the  contractile  power  of  the  living  muscles  is  very  great : 
the  thigh  bone  has  frequently  been  broken  by  muscular  contractions 
in  fits  of  epilepsy.  And  in  cases  where  there  has  been  a  dislocation 
of  the  thigh,  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone  being  thrown  out  of  its 
socket,  (Fig.  56)  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  employ  strong 
ropes,  attached  to  a  wheel  turned  by  several  hands,  in  order  to 
overcome  the  contraction  of  the  excited  muscles,  and  to  enable  the 
operator  to  restore  the  bone  to  its  place. 

946.  What  is   the  stimulus  which   sets   the  muscles  in 
action  ? 

The  muscles  are  excited  to  action  by  the  nerves,  which  they 
receive  from  the  spinal  cord. 

9^7.    Why  does  it  require  the  influence  of  the  will  to  set 
the  arms  in  motion? 

Because  the  muscles  which  form  their  mechanism  are  voluntary 
uuusfles—  that  is,  they  are  subject  to  the  will  of  man,  and  infli*- 
*  10» 


226 


THE   REASON    WHY. 


'  And  he  took  him  by  the  right  iiaiid,  and  lifted  him  up ;  and  immediately  his 
feet  and  ancle  bones  received  strength."— ACTS  in. 


enced  by  impulses  directed  to  them 
through  the  nervous  system  by  the 
mind,  which  is  the  governing  power. 

948.     Why   does  the   heart   beat 
without  any  effort  of  the  will? 

Because  the  muscles  of  the  heart  are 
involutary  muscles — that  is,  they  are 
independent  of  the  will,  and  receive  a 
continuous  nervous  stimulus  which  is  not 
under  the  controul  of  the  mind. 


A.  A  large  ligament,  which  covers  the  knee 
pan,  or  moveable  bone  of  the  knee,  by  whic-h 
the  ends  of  the  bones  of  the  thigh  and  leg  are 
kept  from  slipping  over  each  other. 

B.  A  muscle  which  passes  underneath  the 
cartilages  of  the  ankle,  and  gives  off  four  ten- 
dons, which  are  distributed  to  the  toes,  and  by 
which  they  are  extended  in  elongating  the  foot, 
walking,  &c. 

U.  Part  of  the  muscle  which  forms  the  fleshy 
bulb  of  the  calf  of  the  leg,  and  which  terminates 
in  the  large  tendon  attached  to  the  heel,  called 
the  tendon  of  Achilles. 

D.  One  of  the   ligaments  which  bind  the 
tendons  and  the  bones  of  the  ankle. 

E.  Arteries  proceeding  from  the  large  vessel 
descending  the  leg,  by  which  the  toes  are  sup- 
plied. 

949.  Why  are  the  muscles  of  the 
arms,  fyc.,  made  subject  to  the  con- 
troul of  the  will  ?  9  .. 


Fig.  58.— MUSCLES  AND  VES- 
SELS OF  THE  LEG-  AND 
FOOT. 


Because,  as  they  supply  the  mechanism  through  which  we  adapt 
ourselves  to  our  varying  wants  and  circumstances,  it  was  necessary 
that  they  should  be  placed  under  the  controul  of  the  mental  power, 
and  be  moved  only  in  accordance  with  mans  necessities. 


THE    SEASON    WHY.  227 


''  If  thou  sayest,  Behold,  we  knew  it  not ;  doth  not  he  that  pondereth  the  heart 

consider  it  ?  and  he  that  keepeth  thy  soul,  doth  not  he  know  it  ?  and  shall  noi 

he  render  to  every  man  according  to  his  works  ?" — PROVEEBS  xxiv. 

950.  Why  are  the  motions  of  the  heart,  <$fc.}  made 
independent  of  the  will  ? 

Because,  as  the  necessity  for  the  heart's  motion  is  fixed  and 
unalterable,  the  constant  motion  of  the  heart  could  be  best  secured 
by  giving  it  a  fixed  nervous  influence,  by  which  it  might  be 
unfailingly  prompted  to  fulfil  its  functions. 

If  the  movements  of  man's  heart  were  subject  to  his  will,  he 
would  be  constantly  required  to  regard  the  operations  of  that 
organ ;  and  so  large  an  amount  of  mental  care  and  physical 
exertion  would  have  to  be  employed  in  that  direction,  that  man's 
sole  work  would  be  to  keep  himself  alive.  Hence  we  see  the 
goodness  of  the  Creator  in  giving  life  to  man,  and  in  keeping  the 
vital  impulses  under  his  divine  care. 


CHAPTER    XLVII. 

951.  What  are  nerves  ? 

The  nerves  are  branches  of  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord  ;  they 
are  distributed  in  great  numbers  to  all  the  active  and  sensitive  parts 
of  the  body. 

952.  What  is  the  spinal  cord  ? 

The  spinal  cord  is  a  long  and  large  cord  of  nervous  matter, 
which  extends  from  the  brain  through  a  continuous  tube  formed  by 
corresponding  hollows  in  the  bones  of  the  back.  It  serves  as  a 
nervous  trunk  for  the  distribution  of  nerves,  just  as  the  aorta  dis- 
tributes branches  of  blood-vessels. 

953.  Why  is  the  spinal  cord  placed  in  the  grooves  formed 
ly  the  back-bone  ? 

Being  a  very  vital  part  of  the  system,  and  from  the  delicacy  of 
its  structure  liable  to  injuries,  it  is  set  in  the  back-bone  for 
protection ;  and  so  great  is  its  security  that  it  is  only  by  force  of 
an  unusual  kind  that  it  can  be  injured. 


228 


TITE   REASON   WHY. 


-  A  sound  heart  L  the  life  of  the  flesh :  but  envy  is  the  rottenness  of  the 
bones."— PROVERBS  xiv. 


Fig.  59.  —  SHOWING  THE 
DISTRIBUTION  OP  NERVES 
AND  VEINS,  AND  ILLUS- 
TRATING THE  MANNER 
IN  "WHICH  THEY  PASS 
THROUGH  THE  FLESH  TO 
BEACH  THE  PARTS  TO 
WHICH  THEIE  FUNCTIONS 
BELONG. 


954.  How   can    branches  proceed 
from  it,  if  it  is  so  securely  encased 
in  bone  ? 

Because  in  the  bones,  on  each  side  of 
of  the  spinal  cord,  there  are  smaller 
grooves  for  the  transmission  of  the 
nervous  branches. 

955.  Of  what  does  the  nervous  sys- 
tem consist  ? 

Of  the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the 
branches  which  are  called  nerves. 

A  B.  Veins  of  the  fore-arm. 

B.  C;mal  formed  in  the  muscle,  through  which 
a  trunk-vein  emerges. 

0.  Canal  formed  in  the  muscle,  through  which 
a  large  nerve  emerges. 

D.  Canal  through  which  a  vein  enters  to 
communicate  with  the  deep  muscles  of  the 
arm. 

956.  What  is  the  constitution  of  a 
nerve  ? 


It  consists  of  a  thin  membrane,  or  sheath,  surrounding  a  greyish 
oily  matter,  which  forms  the  nervous  marrow.  In  the  centre  of 
this  marrow  is  usually  found  a  small  fibre,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
the  essential  part  of  the  nerve  ;  and  most  nerves  consist  of  a  number 
of  these  sheaths  enclosing  fibres  running  in  parallel  directions. 

957.  What  is  the  nervous  fluid  ? 

The  term  nervous  fluid  is  used  to  express  our  ideas  of  the  mode 
by  which  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  influence  the  remote  parts  :  just 
as  we  say  the  electric  fluid,  without  knowing  that  such  a  fluid 
exists.  It  is  the  most  convenient  form  of  expression. 

958.  How  many  classes  of  nerves  are  there  T 

There  are  :— 

1.  The  nerves  of  motion. 

2.  The  nerves  of  sensation. 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  229 


M  Having  many  things  to  write  unto  you,  I  would  not  write  with  paper  and  ink; 
but  I  trust  to  come  unto  you,  and  speak  face  to  face,  that  our  joy 
may  be  full."—  n  JOHN. 

3.  The  nerves  of  special  sense. 

4.  The  nerves  of  sympathy. 

959.   What  are  the  nerves  of  motion? 

The  nerves  of  motion  are  those  which,  in  obedience  to  the  will, 
stimulate  the  muscles  to  act,  and  apportion  the  amount  of 
stimulation  they  convey  to  the  degree  of  exertion  required. 


Fig.  60.— MUSCLES  OF  THE  HEAD  AND  FACE,  WITH  NERVES   DISTRIBUTED 
THERETO. 

A  A  A.  The  facial  nerve  emerging  from  underneath  the  ear,  and  distributing 
branches  to  the  cheeks,  temple,  forehead,  &c.  This  nerve  excites  the  muscles 
of  the  face,  and  is  chiefly  instrumental  iu  producing  the  expressions  of  the 
countenance  under  the  changing  emotions  of  the  mind. 

B  B  B.  Muscles  by  which  various  motions  are  imparted  to  the  head,  face, 
Oiouth,  &c.,  under  the  stimulus  of  the  nerves. 

960.    W  hat  are  the  nerves  of  sensation  ? 

The  nerves  of  sensation  are  those  which  impart  a  consciousness 
to  the  brain  that  its  commands  to  the  nerves  of  motion  have  beeu 
obeyed,  and  how  far  they  have  been  fulfilled. 


230  THE   REASON   WHY. 

"  Oil  that  men  would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness,  and  for  his  wonderful 
•  works  to  the  children  of  men."— PSALM  evil. 


Let  us  perform  a  simple  experiment,  which  will  more  clearly  illustrate  the 
phenomena  of  motion  and  of  sensation,  which  we  are  now  describing,  than 
a  great  deal  of  writing  upon  the  subject.  You  hold  in  your  hand  thin  book  : 
close  it,  and  set  it  upon  the  table ;  lay  your  hands  passively  upon  your  lap, 
and  then  will  your  hand,  to  take  up  the  book,  which  is  the  same  as  to  say,  com- 
mand your  hand"  to  take  up  the  book.  What  occurs  ?  The  hand,  immediately 
obeying  your  desire,  stretches  forward  to  the  book,  and  takes  hold  of  it.  How 
do  you  know  that  you  have  hold  of  it  ?  You  see  that  you  have :  but  were  your 
eyes  closed,  you  would  be  equally  aware  that  the  hand  had  reached  the  book, 
and  fulfilled  your  wishes.  It  is  by  the  nerves  of  sensation  that  you  are  made 
aware  that  the  hand  has  fulfilled  your  instructions. 

Consider  what  took  place  in  the  simple  action.  In  the  first  instance,  a 
desire  arose  in  your  mind  to  take  up  the  book.  The  brain  is  the  organ  of  the 
mind  ;  and  having  branches  either  proceeding  from  itself,  or  from  the  spinal 
cord,  to  every  part  of  the  body— branches  that  traverse  like  telegraphic  wires 
throughout  every  part  of  the  system,— it  transmitted  instructions  along  the 
nerves  that  proceed  to  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  hand,  directing  them  to  take 
up  the  book.  This  was  done  instantly ;  and  as  soon  as  it  was  done  you  became 
conscious  that  your  will  had  been  obeyed—  because  the  nerves  sent  back  a  sen- 
sation to  the  brain  acquainting  it  that  the  book  had  been  taken  up,  and  that  at 
the  moment  of  the  dispatch  it  was  in  the  firm  hold  of  the  hand. 

In  all  the  varied  motions  of  the  body  this  double  action  of  the  nerves  takes 
place.  It  is  obvious  that  without  an  outivard  impulse  from  the  brain,  upon 
which  the  desire  of  the  mind  first  made  an  impression,  no  motion  of  the  mus- 
cles of  the  arm  and  the  hand  could  have  taken  place ;  and  it  is  also  obvious  that 
without  an  inward  impulse  from  the  nerves  to  the  brain  you  would  not  havo 
known  that  the  muscles  had  fulfilled  your  instructions.  The  hand  might  have 
dropped  by  the  side  of  the  bouk,  or  have  gone  too  far,  or  not  far  enough,  and  you 
would  not  have  been  waare  of  the  result,  but  for  an  inward  communication 
through  the  nerves. 

We  are  not  now  speaking  of  the  nerves  which  endow  us  with  the  sense  of 
feeling;  because  they  are  regarded  as  separate  and  distinct  from  those  nerves 
that  produce  in  us  consciousness  of  muscular  response.  When  we  walk,  rise,  or 
sit,  we  are  made  conscious,  without  any  special  feeling  being  exerted,  that  the 
muscles  have  placed  the  limb,  or  the  body,  in  the  desired  position,  that  it  is 
set  down  safely  and  firmly,  and  that  we  may  repose  upon  it  securely  without 
further  attention.  We  refer  the  impressions  made  by  the  book  upon  the  nerves 
of  the  hand,  and  which  enable  us  to  tell  whether  it  feels  hot  or  cold, 
whether  its  surface  is  rough  or  smooth,  and  so  on,  to  the  special  sense  of  feeling. 
The  consciousness  of  muscular  action  is  a  separate  and  distinct  function  ;  and 
it  is  generally  believed  that  the  same  nerves  that  convey  the  command  of  the 
will  outward,  bringing  back  the  intimation  that  the  will  has  been  obeyed,  but 
that  different  fibres  of  the  nerves  convey  the  outward  and  the  imoard  impulses. 
A  single  nerve  may  therefore  be  .'ikened  to  a  double  wire  connected  with  the 
electric  telegraph :  one  transmitti,  g  despatches  in  one  direction,  and  the  other 
in  the  opposite  direction. 

961.   What  are  the  nerves  of  special  sense  ? 
The  nerves  of  special  sense  ar  » those  throusrh  which  we  hear,  seet 
feel,  smell,  and  taste. 


THE   SEASON    WHY.  231 


;  For  the  Lord  seeth  not  as  man  seeth ;  for  man  looketh  on  the  outward  appear* 
ance,  but  the  Lord  looketh  on  the  heart."— SAMUEL  xvi. 


962,   What  are  the  nerves  of  sympathy  ? 

The  nerves  of  sympathy,  or  the  system  of  sympathetic  nerves, 
are  those  which  are  distributed  to  the  internal  organs,  and  which 
are  independent  of  the  will.  They  regulate  the  motions  of  the 
heart,  the  lungs,  the  stomach,  &c.,  and  stimulate  the  organs  of 
secretion,  so  that  those  organs  work  in  harmony  with  each  other. 

As  the  internal  organs  are  all  more  or  less  dependent  upon  each 
other,  and  unite  their  functions  for  similar  ends,  it  is  obvious  that 
there  should  prevail  among  them  a  mutual  consciousness  of  their 
state.  Otherwise,  when  the  stomach  had  formed  chyme,  the  liver 
might  have  no  bile  ready  to  fulfil  its  office ;  the  absorbents  might 
be  in  a  state  of  rest  at  the  moment  when  nutrition  was  set  before 
them ;  and  the  heart  might  beat  slowly,  while  the  lungs  were  in 
active  exertion  to  obtain  additional  blood  to  support  an  active 
exercise.  The  sympathetic  system  of  nerves  therefore  regulates 
and  harmonises  these  internal  functions. 


CHAPTER     XLVIII. 

963.  Why  do  we  see  objects  ? 

Because  the  light  which  is  reflected  from  them  enters  our  eyes 
and  produces  images  of  their  forms  upon  a  membrane  of  nerves 
called  the  retina,  just  as  images  are  produced  upon  a  mirror. 

964.  Why  does  this  enable  us  to  see  ? 

Because  the  membrane  which  receives  the  images  of  objects  is 
connected  with  the  optic  nerve  which  transmits  to  the  brain  impres- 
sions made  by  the  reflections  of  light,  just  as  other  nerves  convey 
the  effects  of  feeling,  hearing,  tasting,  &c. 

965.  Why  are  we  enabled  to  move  our  eyes  ? 

Because  various  muscles  are  so  placed  in  relation  to  the  eye- 
ball, that  their  contraction  draws  the  eye  in  the  direction  required. 
We  are  thus  enabled  to  adjust  the  direction  of  the  eye  to  the  position 
of  the  objects  we  desire  to  see,  in  other  words  to  set  the  mirror  in 
such  a  2  osition  that  it  will  receive  the  reflection.  (See  517.) 


232  THE   REASON    WHY. 


'  Truly  the  light  is  sw  eet,  and  a  pleasant  thing  it  is  for  the  eyes  to  behold  the 
sun."— ECCLESIASTES  xi. 


966.  Why  are  we  enabled  to  see  large  objects  upon  so 
small  a  surface  ? 

Because  the  lenses  and  humours  of  the  eye  collect  the  rays  of 
light  coming  from  every  direction,  and,  bringing  them  into  a  focus, 
transmit  them  to  the  retina,  where  each  ray  impresses  upon  the 
nervous  surface  the  qualities  it  received  from  the  object  which 
reflected  it. 

I 


Fig.  61.— THE  EYEBALL  AND  ITS  MUSCLES. 

A.  Portion  of  bone  through  which  the  optic  nerve  passes  in  its  communication 
between  the  brain  and  the  eye. 

B.  The  optic  nerve,  from  before  which  an  external  muscle  has  been  cut  away, 
leaving  its  two  attachments. 

C.  The  globe  of  the  eye. 

D.  The  muscle  which  turns  the  eye  outward,  and  which  is  counteracted  by  a 
muscle  on  the  other  side. 

E.  The  muscle  which  passes  through  a  loop,  or  staple  of  cartilage  I,  and  turns 
the  eye  obliquely.    It  is  counteracted  by  a  muscle  situated  underneath. 

F.  The  muscle  situated  underneath,  which  turns  tlie  eyeball  upwards,  and  is 
counteracted  by 

G.  The  muscle  which  turns  the  eyeball  downwards. 

H.  The  muscle  attached  to  a  bone  which  turns  the  eyeball  upwards. 

I.  The  cartilaginous  loop  through  which  a  muscle  passes. 

J.  The  front  chamber  of  the  eye  filled  with  a  clear  fluid. 

K.  Fragment  of  the  bone  by  which  one  of  the  muscles  is  fastened. 

967.  Why  do  some  persons  squint  ? 

Because  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  muscle  of  the  eye  acts  too 
powerfully  for  its  companion  muscle,  and  draws  the  eye  too  much 
on  one  side. 

968.  Why  does  the  pupil  of  the  eye  look  Hack  ? 
Because  the  pupil  is  an  opening  through  which  the  rays  of  light 

pass  into  the  chamber  of  the  eye.    There  is,  therefore,  nothing  in 
the  pupil,  of  the  eye  to  reflect  light. 


THE   REASON   WHY.  233 


**  Keep  me  as  the  apple  of  thine  eye ;  hide  me  under  the  shadow  of  thy 
wings."— PSALM  xvn. 


969.  Why  is  the  pupil  of  the  eye  larger  sometimes  than 
it  others  ? 

Because  the  iris,  a  ring  of  extremely  fine  muscles  which  surround 
the  pupil,  contracts  when  too  much  light  falls  upon  the  retina,  and 
dilates  when  the  light  is  feeble.  It  therefore  enlarges  or 
diminishes  the  size  of  the  pupil  to  regulate  the  admission  of 
light. 


Fig.  62.— SECTION  OF  THE  EYE  SEEN  FROJI  BEHIND 

A.  The  pupil  of  the  eye  through  which  the  li'j;ht  enters. 

B.  The  iris,  which  dilates  or  contracts,  and  thereby  increases  or  lessens  the 
size  of  the  pupil. 

C  C.  The  three  coats  of  the  eye,  called  the  sclerotic,  choroid,  and  retina. 

D.  The  ciliary  processes,  or  hair-like  muso'es,  which  have  a  slight  vibratory 
motion  which  they  impart  to  the  fluids  of  the  eye. 

E.  The  dark  coat  of  the  choroid,  the  coat  forming  the  retina  removed. 

970.   Why  have  we  two  eyes  ? 

Because  the  field  of  vision  is  thereby  much  extended;  the 
intensity  of  sight  is  also  increased,  the  impressions  upon  the  brain 
being  clearer  and  better  defined,  just  as  in  a  stereoscope  the  effect  of 
vision  is  heightened  by  a  double  picture ;  the  sense  of  sight  being 
more  constantly  exercised  than  any  other  sense  during  our  waking 
moments,  one  eye  is  frequently  called  upon  to  give  rest  to  the 
other ;  and  the  important  faculty  of  vision,  being  endangered  by 
the  necessary  exposure  of  some  parts  of  the  eye,  and  the  equally 


-234  THE   SEASON    WHY. 


'  The  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  upon  the  righteous,  and  his  ears  are  open  unto  their 
cry."— PSALM  xxxiv. 


necessary  delicacy  of  an  organ  formed  to  receive  impressions  from 
so  ethereal  an  element  as  light,  is  rendered  the  more  secure  to  us, 
since  though  one  eye  may  become  enfeebled,  diseased,  or  wholly 
lost,  the  other  eye  will  retain  the  blessing  of  sight. 

971.  Why,  having  two   eyes,   and  each    eye  receiving   a 
reflection  upon  its  retina,  does  the  brain  experience  only  one 
impression  of  an  object? 

Because,  besides  those  optical  laws  which  bring  upon  the  two 
retinas  the  exactly  corresponding  images  of  the  same  objects,  the 
optic  nerves  meet  before  they  reach  the  brain,  and  blend  the 
impulses  which  they  convey. 

972.  Why  are  the  eyes  provided  with  eye-lids? 

Because  the  eyes  require  to  be  defended  from  floating  particles  in 
in  the  air,  and  to  be  kept  moist  and  clean.  The  eye -lids  form  the 
shutters  of  the  eye,  defending  it  when  waking,  by  closing  upon  its 
surface  whenever  danger  is  apprehended,  moistening  its  surface  when 
it  becomes  dry,  and  covering  it  securely  during  the  hours  of  sleep. 

973.  Why  are  the  eye-lids  fringed  with  eye-lashes? 

Because  the  eye-lashes  assist  to  modify  the  light,  and  to  protect 
the  eye,  without  actually  closing  the  eye-lids.  When  the  eye -lids 
are  partially  closed,  as  in  very  sunny  or  dusty  weather,  the 
eye-lashes  cross  each  other,  forming  a  kind  of  shady  lattice-work, 
from  the  interspaces  of  which  the  eye  looks  out  with  advantage, 
and  sees  sufficiently  for  the  guidance  of  the  body. 

974.  Why  are  we  able  to  see  at  long  or  short  distances  ? 

Because  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  eye  is  a  moveable  body,  and 
is  pushed  forward,  or  drawn  back  by  fine  muscular  fibres,  acccording 
to  the  distances  of  the  objects  upon  which  we  look.  By  these  means 
its  focus  becomes  adjusted. 

975.  Why  do  we  wink  ? 

Because,  by  the  repeated  action  of  winking,  the  eye  is  kept 
moist  and  clean,  and  the  watery  fluid  secreted  by  little  glands  in 
the  eye-lids,  and  at  the  sides  of  the  eye,  is  spread  equally  over  the 
surface,  instead  of  being  allowed  to  accumulate.  But  the  action  of 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  235 


1  And  tl.e  eye  cannot  say  unto  the  hand,  I  have  no  need  of  thee ;  nor  again  the 
head  to  the  feet,  I  have  no  need  of  you."—  CORINTH,  xii. 


winking,  or  brightening  the  eye,  is  so  instantaneous  that  it  does  not 
impede  the  sight. 

976.  Whence  are  the  humours  and  secretions  of  the  eye 
derived  ? 

From  the  blood,  which  flows  abundantly  to  the  eyes,  and  ia 
circulated  in  capillary  vessels  that  are  spread  out  upon  the 
membranous  coats  of  the  eye-balls. 


Fig.  63.—  SECTION  OF  THE  EYE. 

A  and  B.  Tne  sclerotic,  choroid,  and  retina,  the  three  layers  or  coats  which 
form  the  walls  of  the  globe  of  the  eye,  and  enclose  its  humours. 
C  C.  The  iris. 

D.  The  front  chamber  of  the  eye,  filled  with  watery  humour . 

E.  The  pupil,  through  which  the  rays  of  light  pass  to 

F.  The  crystalline  lens. 

G  G.  The  vitreous  humour  enclosed  in  cells  formed  by  the  hyaloid  membrane. 
H.  An  artery  which  supplies  blood  to  the  crystalline  lens,  and  which  passes 
ihrough  the  centre  of  the  optic  nerve. 

G.  The  optic  nerve,  showing  the  sheath  in  which  the  nerve  is  enclosed. 

977.   Why  do  tears  form  in  the  eyes  ? 

Because,  under  the  emotions  of  the  mind,  the  circulation  of  blood 
in  the  brain,  and  in  its  nearest  branches,  becomes  considerably 
quickened.  The  eyes  receive  a  larger  amount  of  blood,  and  the 
secretion  of  the  lachrymal  glands  being  increased,  the  fluid 
overflows,  and  tears  are  formed.  The  use  of  tears  is  probably  to 
keep  the  eyes  cool  during  the  excitement  of  the  brain.  They  are 
formed  also  during  laughing,  but  less  frequently. 


236  THE   REASON    WHY. 


If  the  whole  body  were  an  eye,  where  were  hearing  ?  if  the  whole  were  hearing 
where  were  smelling  ?"— CORINTHIANS  zir. 


978.  Why  do  we  feel  inconvenienced  by  sudden  light? 

Because  an  excess  of  light  enters  the  eye  before  the  iris  has  had 
time  to  adjust  the  pupil  to  the  amount  of  light  to  be  received. 

979.  Why  if  we  look  upon  a  very  bright  light,  and  then 
turn  away,  are  we  unable  to  see  ? 

Because  the  iris  has  so  reduced  the  pupil  while  we  were  looking 
at  the  bright  light,  that  immediately  upon  turning  to  a  darker  object, 
the  pupil  is  too  small  to  admit  sufficient  rays  to  enable  us  to  see. 


Fig.  64.— CAPILLARY  BLOOD-TESSELS  OP  THE  BT». 

A  A.  Capillary  veins  distributed  over  the  sclerotic  coat. 

B.  One  of  the  trunks  of  the  optic  nerve. 

0.  A  nerve  communicating  with  the  ciliary  processes. 

D.  A  vein  running  parallel  with  the  nerve  to  the  ciliary  processet. 

E.  Side  view  of  the  iris. 

980.  Why  do  we  see  better  after  a  short  time  ? 

Because  the  iris  has  relaxed  and  enlarged  the  pupil,  therefore  we 
receive  more  rays  of  light  from  the  comparatively  dark  object,  and 
are  enabled  to  see  it  more  clearly. 

981.  Why  do  cats,  bats,  owls,  Sfc.,  see  in  the  dark  ? 
Because  their  eyes  are  made  highly  sensitive  to  small  quantities 

of  light.     It  is  also  believed  that  there   are  certain  properties  of 
light  which  affect  their  eyes,  but  do  not  affect  ours.    In  other  words, 


THE   BEASON    WHY.  237 


"  He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear."— MATTHEW  xi. 

that  there  are  some  rays  which  are  luminous  to  them  which  are 
not  luminous  to  us.  Hence  they  find  light  in  what  we  call  darkness. 

982.  Why  does  the  pupil  of  a  cat's  eye  appear  nearly  closed 
by  day? 

Because  the  cat's  eye  is  so  sensitive  to  light  that  the  iris  closes 
the  pupil  almost  entirely  to  shut  out  the  too  powerful  light. 


CHAPTER     XLIX. 

983.  Why  do  we  hear  ? 

Because  the  tympanum  of  the  ear  receives  impressions  from 
sounds,  and  transmits  those  impressions  to  the  brain  in  a  similar 
manner  to  that  in  which  the  retina  of  the  eye  transmits  the 
impressions  made  upon  it  by  light. 

984.  Why  is  one  part  of  the  ear  spread  out  externally  ? 
The  external  ear  is  a  natural  ear-trumpet,  and  serves  to  collect 

the  vibrations  of  sound,  and  to  conduct  them  towards  the  internal 
ear. 

985.  Why  is  the  ear  allowed  to  project,  whilst  the  eye  is 
carefully  enclosed  ? 

Because  the  external  ear,  being  formed  of  tough  cartilaginous 
substance,  and  being  very  simple  in  its  organisation,  is  but  little 
liable  to  injury. 

986.  Why  do  hairs  grow  across  the  entrance  of  the  ears  ? 
Because  they  prevent  the  intrusion  of  insects,  and  of  particles  of 

dust,  by  which  otherwise  the  faculty  of  hearing  would  be  impaired. 

The  insect  called  the  ear-wig  is  popularly  supposed  to  be  so  named  from  its 
tendency  to  get  into  the  human  ear,  and  cause  pain  and  madness  by 
penetrating  to  the  brain.  An  earwig,  however,  is  no  more  likely  to  get  into 
the  ear  than  any  other  insect  whose  habit  it  is  to  penetrate  the  corollas  of 
flowers;  and  should  an  insect  enter  the  ear,  i  could  get  no  further  than  the 
membrane  of  the  tympanum,which  spreads  all  over  the  auditory  passage,  just  as 
the  parchment  of  a  drum  spreads  over  the  entire  circumference  of  that 
instrument.  The  fact  is,  that  the  wing  of  the  insect,  when  spread,  resembles 
the  external  ear  in  phape.  I"  is  similar  4o  the  wing  of  the  stag  beetle  (see 
Illustration),  and  this  fancied  resemblance  of  the  wing  of  the  insect  to  the  ear 
of  man  may  have  given  rise  to  the  name  of  ear-wing,  which  became  corrupted 
K>  ear-wig. 


238  THE   EEASO»    WHY. 

"  Doth  not  the  ear  try  words  ?  and  the  mouth  taste  his  meat."— JOB  xn, 

987.   Why  is  wax  secreted  at  the  entrance  of  the  ear? 

Because,  by  the  peculiar  resinous  property  which  it  possesses,  it 
improves  the  sound-conducting  power  of  the  auditory  canal  through 
which  it  prevails. 


Fig.  63.— THE   STRUCTURE  OP  THE  EAR. 

A  A.  G  lands  which  secrete  wax  in  the  walls  of  the  tube  of  the  ear. 

B.  The  membrane  of  the  tympanum,  or  drum  of  the  ear,  formed  in  the  shaj  o 
of  a  funnel. 

C  C.  Bones  which  act  as  a  sort  of  sounding-board  to  the  ear,  giving  strength  to 
the  vibrations. 

D.  The  Eustachian  tube,  which  opens  into  the  root  of  the  mouth,  and  which 
serves  to  p  reserve  an  equilibrium  in  the  density  of  the  air  occupying  the  tubes 
of  the  ear. 

E  and  F  The  labrynth  of  the  ear,  consisting  of  folds  of  membraneous  tubes, 
filled  with  fluid,  which  serves  to  undulate  with  the  vibrations  of  the  tympanum, 
and  thu  s  gives  clearness  and  precision  to  the  sounds. 

The  auditory  nerves  are  distributed  in  the  tubes  above  described  (the  vestibule 
and  the  cochlea  E  F),  and  the  nerves  receive  their  impressions  from  the  undu- 
ations  of  the  fluid. 

983.   W  hy  do  we  sometimes  hear  singing  noises  in  the  ear  ? 
Because  the  ear  is  liable  to  inflammation  from  various  causes,  and 


THE    KEASON    WHY.  239 


1  Apply  thine  heart  unto  instruction,  and  thine  ears  to  the  words  of 
knowledge." — PROVERBS  xxiii. 


when  the  blood  flows  unduly  through  the  vessels  of  the  ear  it 
produces  a  slight  sound. 

989.  Why  do  people  become  deaf? 

Because  the  ear  may  be  injured  in  various  ways  :  the  tympanum 
may  be  impaired,  the  fluid  of  the  ear  dried  up,  or  the  nerves  be 
pressed  upon  by  swellings  in  the  surrounding  parts.  When, 
therefore,  the  mechanism  of  hearing  is  impaired,  the  sense  of 
hearing  becomes  weakened,  or  altogether  lost. 

990.  Why  do  persons  accustomed  to  loud  noises  feel  no 
inconvenience  from  them  ? 

Because  the  sensitiveness  of  the  nerves  of  the  ear  becomes 
deadened.  They  do  not  convey  to  the  brain  such  intense  impulses 
when  they  are  frequently  acted  upon  by  loud  sounds. 

991.  Why  do  persons  engaged  in  lattle  often  lose  their 
hearing  ? 

Because  the  vibrations  caused  by  the  sounds  of  artillery  are  so 
violent  that  they  overpower  the  mechanism  of  the  ear,  and 
frequently  rupture  the  connection  of  the  fine  nervous  filaments 
with  the  textures  through  which  they  spread. 

The  violent  concussions  of  the  air  produced  by  volleys  of  cannon,  or  by  loud 
peals  of  thunder,  have  an  overpowering  effect  upon  persons  nervously  con- 
stituted, and  upon  the  organ  of  hearing,  which  is  more  especially  affected.  As 
persons  have  been  struck  blind  by  intense  light,  so  others  have  been  deafened 
by  intense  sounds.  In  1697  a  butcher's  dog  was  killed  by  the  noise  of  the 
firing  to  celebrate  the  proclamation  of  peace.  Two  troops  of  horse  were 
dismounted,  and  drawn  up  in  a  line  to  fire  volleys.  At  the  moment  of  the 
first  volley  a  large  and  courageous  mastiff,  belonging  to  a  butcher,  was  lying 
asleep  before  the  fire.  At  the  noise  of  the  first  volley  the  dog  started  up,  and  ran 
into  another  room,  where  it  hid  itself  behind  a  bed ;  on  the  firing  of  the  second 
volley,  it  ran  several  times  bout  the  room,  trembling  violently  ;  and  when  the 
bird  volley  was  fired  it  ran  around  once  or  twice  with  great  voilence,  and  then 
dropped  down  dead,  with  blood  flowing  from  its  mouth  and  nose.  Persons 
who  are  painfully  affected  by  loud  noises  should  put  a  little  wool  in  their  ears 
when  such  noises  are  occurring;  they  will  thereby  save  themselves  from 
temporary  inconvenience,  and  probably  preserve  the  sense  of  hearing  from 
permanent  injury. 

992.  Why  do  we  smell  ? 

Because  minute  particles  of  matter,  diffused  in  the  air,  come  in 


210  THE   SEASON     VHY. 


"  And  the  Lord  God  formed  man  of  the  dust  of  the  ground,  and  breathed  into 
his  nostrils  the  breath  of  life ;  and  man  became  a  living  soul." — GENESIS  u. 


contact  with  the  filaments  of  the  olfactory  nerve,  which  are  spread 
out  upon  the  walls  of  the  nostrils,  and  those  nerves  transmit 
impressions  to  the  brain,  constituting  what  we  call  the  odour  of 
substances. 


Fig.   66.  —  BKOWITSIQ   THE   DISTEIBUTION  OF  THE  NEBVOUS  FILAMENTS  UPON 
SENSITIVE  MEMBBANES. 

A.  The  olfactory  nerve,  distributed  in  minute  branches  upon  the  membrane 
of  the  nostril. 

B.  The  bulb  of  the  olfactory  nerve. 

C.  The  roots  from  which  the  olfactory  nerve  originates. 

D  E.  Nerves  of  the  palate,  showing  the  manner  in  which  they  are  passed 
through  the  bones  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 

993.  Why   do   hairs  grow    across   the   passages    of  the 
nostrils  ? 

Because  they  form  a  defence  against  the  admission  of  dust  and 
insects,  which  would  otherwise  frequently  irritate  i^e  nenrous 
Btructure  of  the  nose. 

994.  Why  are  the  nostrils  directed  downwards  t 
Because,  as  odours  and  effluvia  ascend,  the  nose  is  directed 


THE   SEASON    WHY.  241 


"  Can  that  which  is  unsavoury  be  eaten  without  salt?  or  is  there  any  taste  in 
the  white  of  an  egg  ?"— JOB  vi. 


towards  them,  and  thereby  receives  the  readiest  intimation  of  tho?e 
bodies  floating  in  the  air  which  may  be  pleasurable  to  the  sense,  or 
offensive  to  the  smell,  and  injurious  to  life. 

995.   Why  is  the  nose  placed  over  and  near  the  mouth  ? 

Because,  as  one  of  the  chief  duties  ot  that  organ  is  to  exercise  a 
watchfulness  over  the  purity  of  the  substances  we  eat  and  drink, 
it  is  placed  in  that  position  which  enables  it  to  discharge  that  duty 
with  the  greatest  readiness. 


CHAPTER     L. 

996.  Why  do  we  taste  ? 

Because  the  tongue  is  endowed  with  gustatory  nerves,  having  the 
function  of  taste  as  their  special  sense,  just  as  the  optic,  the 
auditory,  and  the  olfactory  nerves,  have  their  special  duties  in  the 
eyes,  ears,  and  nose. 

997.  Why  do  some  substances  taste  sweet,   others   sour, 
others  salt,  fyc.  ? 

It  is  believed  that  the  impressions  of  taste  arise  from  the  various 
forms  of  the  atoms  of  matter  presented  to  the  nerves  of  the  tongue. 

998.  Why  do  we  taste  substances  most  satisfactorily  after 
they  have  remained  a  little  while  in  the  mouth  ? 

Because  the  nerves  of  taste  are  most  abundantly  distributed  to 
the  under  surface  of  the  tongue ;  and  when  solid  substances  have 
been  in  the  mouth  a  little  while,  they  impregnate  the  saliva  of  the 
mouth  with  their  particles  and  come  in  contact  in  a  fluid  solution 
with  the  gustatory  nerves. 

999.  Why  if  we  put  a  nub  of  sugar  to  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
has  it  no  taste  ? 

Because  the  gustatory  nerves  are  not  distributed  to  that  part  of 
thi  tongue. 

11 


242  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


'Wine  is  a  mocker,  strong  drink  is  raging;  and  whosoever  is  deceived  thereby 
is  not  wise."— PBOYERBS  xx. 


1000.  Why,  when  toe  draw  the  tongue  in,  do  we  recognise 
the  sweetness  of  the  sugar  ? 

Because  the  dissolved  particles  of  sugar  are  brought  in  contact 
with  the  nerves  of  taste. 

1001.  TJirough  what  nerves  are  we  made  sensible  of  the 
contact  of  sugar  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  ? 

Through  the  nerves  of  feeling,  which  are  abundantly  distributed 
to  the  tongue  to  guide  it  in  its  controul  over  the  mastication  of 
food. 

1002.  Why  do  conniseurs  of  wines  close  their  mouths  and 
distend  their  chins  for  a  few  seconds,  when  tasting  wines  ? 

Because  they  thereby  bring  the  wine  in  contact  with  the  under 
surface  of  the  tongue,  in  which  the  gustatory  nerves  chiejly  reside. 

1003.  Why  do  they  also  pass  the  fumes  of  the  wines  through 
their  nostrils? 

Because  flavour,  in  its  fullest  sense,  comprehends  not  only  the 
taste,  but  the  odour  of  a  substance ;  and,  therefore,  persons  of 
experience  attend  to  both  requisites. 

The  various  conditions  of  taste  are  denned  to  be : — 

1.  Where  sensations  of  touch  are  alone  produced,  as  by  glass,  ice, 
pebbles,  &c. 

2.  Where,    in  addition    to  being  felt    upon  the   tongue,   the 
the  substance  excites  sensation  in  the  olfactory  nerves,  as  by  lead, 
tin,  copper,  &c. 

3.  Where,  besides  being  felt,  there  are  peculiar  sensations  of 
taste,  expressive  of  the  properties  of  bodies,  as  salt,  sugar,  tartaric 
acid,  &c. 

4.  Where,    besides  being  felt  and   tasted,  there  is  an   odour 
characteristic  of  the  substance,  and  essential  to  the  full  develope- 
ment  of  its  flavours,  as  in  cloves,  lemon-peel,  carri  way -seed,  and 
aromatic  substances  generally. 

1004.  Why  do  we  feel  ? 

Because  there  are  distributed  to  various  parts  of  the  body  fine 
nervous  filaments,  which  have  for  their  special  duty  the  trans- 
mission to  the  brain  of  impressions  made  upon  them  by  contact 
Kith  substances. 


THE    REASON   WHY.  243 


"  The  works  of  the  Lord  are  great,  sought  out  of  all  them  that  have  pleasure 
therein."— PSALM  cxi. 


1005.  In  what  parts  of  tlie  lody  does  the  sense  of  touch 
wore  especially  reside  ? 

In  the  points  of  the  fingers  and  in  the  tongue.  By  laying  a 
piece  of  paper  upon  a  table,  and  upon  the  paper  a  piece  of  cloth,  on 
the  piece  of  cloth  a  bit  of  silk,  and  on  the  bit  of  silk  a  piece  of 
leather,  so  that  the  edge  of  each  would  be  exposed  to  the  extent  of 
half-an-inch,  it  would  be  possible  by  the  touch  to  tell  when  the 
finger  passed  successively  over  the  leather,  silk,  cloth,  or  paper,  and 
arrived  on  the  table. 

Those  impressions  of  touch  must  have  been  communicated,  with 
their  extremely  nice  distinctions,  to  the  sensitive  nerves  that  lie 
underneath  the  skin,  and  must  have  been  transmitted  all  the  way 
through  the  arm  to  the  brain,  although  the  touch  itself  was  so 
light  as  scarcely  to  be  appreciable  with  regard  to  the  force  applied. 

A  hair  lying  on  the  tongue  will  be  plainly  perceptible  to  the  touch 
of  the  tongue ;  and  the  surface  of  a  broken  tooth  will  often  causes 
the  tongue  great  annoyance,  by  the  acute  perception  it  imparts 
of  the  roughness  of  its  surface. 

The  toes  are  also  highly  sensitive,  though  their  powers  of  touch 
are  seldom  fully  developed.  Persons  who  have  lost  their  arms,  how- 
ever, have  brought  their  feet  to  be  almost  as  sensitive  as  fingers. 
Blind  persons  increase,  by  constant  exercise,  their  powers  of  touch 
to  such  a  degree  that  they  are  able  to  read  freely  by  passing  their 
fingers  over  embossed  printing ;  and  they  have  been  known  to 
distinguish  colours  by  differences  in  their  grain,  quite  unappreciable 
by  other  persons. 

1006.  Why  is  feeling  impaired  ivhen  the  Tiands  are  cold? 

*J          «/  •/  x 

Because,  as  the  blood  flows  slowly  to  the  nerves,  they  are  less 
capable  of  that  perception  of  touch  which  is  their  special  sense.  The 
skin  contracts  upon  the  nervous  filaments,  and  impairs  the  contact 
between  them  and  the  bodies  which  they  touch. 

1007.  WTiy  do  the  fingers  prick  and  sting  when  they  again 
become  warm  ? 

Because,  as  the  warmth  expands  the  cuticle,  and  the  blood  begins 
to  flow  more  freely  through  the  vessels,  the  nerves  are  made 
conscious  of  the  movements  of  the  blood,  and  continue  to  be  so 
until  the  circulation  is  equally  restored  to  all  the  parts. 


244  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


"  In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread,  till  thou  return  to  the  ground  ; 

for  out  of  it  thou  wast  taken :  for  dust  thou  art,  and  unto  dust 

shalt  thou  return."— GENESIS  in. 


1008.  Why  do  persons  ivhose  legs  and  arms  have  teen 
amputated  fancy  they  feel  the  toes  or  fingers  of  the  amputated 
limb  ? 

Because  the  nervous  trunk  which  formerly  conveyed  impressions 
from  those  extremities  remains  in  the  part  of  the  limb  attached  to 
the  body.  The  mind  has  been  accustomed  to  refer  the  impulses 
received  through  that  nervous  trunk  to  the  extremity  where  the 
sensations  arose.  And  now  that  the  nerve  has  been  cut,  the 
painful  sensation  caused  thereby  is  referred  to  the  extremity  which 
the  nerve  supplied,  and  the  sufferers  for  a  time  appear  to  continue 
to  feel  the  part  which  they  have  lost* 


CHAPTER    LL 

1009.  Why  do  we  perspire  ? 

Because  the  skin  is  filled  with  very  minute  pores,  which  act  as 
outlets  for  a  portion  of  the  water  of  the  blood,  that  serves  to 
moisten  and  cool  the  surface  of  the  body,  and  to  carry  away  some 
of  the  matter  no  longer  needed  in  the  system'. 

1010.  How  is  the  perspiration  formed  ? 

By  very  small  glands,  which  lie  embedded  in  the  skin.  It  is 
estimated  that  there  are  about  2,700,000  perspiratory  glands 
distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  body,  and  that  these  glands  find 
outlets  for  their  secretion  through  no  less  than  seven  millions  of 
pores. 

10.11.   What  is  insensible  perspiration  ? 

Insensible  perspiration  is  that  transmission  of  watery  particles 
through  the  skin  which  is  constantly  going  on,  but  which  takes 
place  so  gently  that  it  cannot  be  perceived.  It  is,  however,  very 
important  in  its  results,  as  no  less  than  from  twenty  to  thirty- 
three  ounces  of  water  may  pass  imperceptibly  throi  yh  the  skin  in 
twenty -four  hours. 

1012.   What  is  sensible  perspiration  t 


THE   EEASOS   WHY.  245 


'.ir.dElisha  sent  a  message  unto  him,  saying,  Go  and  wash  in  Jordan  seven 

times,  and  thy  flesh  shall  come  agrahi  to  thee,  and  thou  shalt 

be  clean."— ii  KINGS  v. 


Sensible  perspiration  is  that  moisture  which  exudes  upon  the 
skin  in  drops  large  enough  to  be  perceptible,  when  the  body  is 
heated  by  exercise  or  other  means. 

1013.  Why  does  a  sudden  change  from  lieat  to  cold  bring 
on  illness  ? 

Because  the  effect  of  cold  arrests  the  action  of  the  vessels  of  the 
skin,  and  suddenly  throws  upon  the  internal  organs  the  excretory 
labour  which  the  skin  should  have  sustained. 

1014.  Why  does  a  chill  upon  the  sJcin  frequently  produce 
inflammation  of  the  lungs  ? 

Because  the  lungs  and  the  skin  together  discharge  the  chief  pro- 
portion of  the  watery  fluid  of  the  body.  When  the  skin's  action 
is  checked,  the  lungs  have  to  throw  off  a  much  greater  amount  of 
fluid.  The  lungs,  therefore,  become  over  worked,  and  inflam- 
matory action  sets  in. 

1015.  Why  does  cleanliness  promote  health  ? 

Because  every  atom  of  dirt  which  lodges  upon  the  surface  of  the 
body  serves  to  clog  and  check  the  working  of  those  minute  pores,  by 
which  much  of  the  fluid  of  the  body  is  changed  and  purified. 

In  the  internal  parts  of  the  system,  the  Creator  has  made  ample 
provision  for  cleanliness.  Every  organ  is  so  constituted  that  it 
cleanses  and  lubricates  itself.  Every  surface  of  the  inner  body  is 
perfectly  clean,  and  as  soft  as  silk 

Mature  leaves  to  man  the  care  of  those  surfaces  which  are  under 
his  immediate  observation  and  controul ;  and  he  who,  from  idleness, 
or  indifference  to  nature's  laws,  is  guilty  of  personal  neglect, 
opposes  the  evident  intentions  of  the  Creator,  and  must  sooner  or 
later  pay  the  penalty  of  disobedience. 

1016.  Why  does  exercise  promote  health? 

Because  it  assists  all  the  functions  upon  which  life  depend.  It 
quickens  the  circulation,  and  thereby  nourishes  every  part  of  the  body, 
causing  the  bones  to  become  firm,  and  the  muscles  to  become  full  and 
healthy.  It  promotes  breathing,  by  which  oxygen  is  taken  into  the 
system,  and  carbon  thrown  off,  and  thereby  it  produces  a  higher 
degree  of  organic  life  and  strength  than  would  otherwise  exist.  It 


246  THE   EEASON   WHY. 


"  Love  not  sleep  lest  tliou  come  to  poverty :  open  thine  eyes,  and  thou  shalt  be 
satisfied  with  bread."— PEOV.  xx. 


promotes  perspiration,  by  which,  through  the  millions  of  pores 
of  the  skin,  much  of  the  fluid  of  the  body  is  changed  and  purified. 
And  it  induces  that  genial  and  diffused  warmth,  which  is  one  of  the 
chief  conditions  of  a  high  degree  of  vitality. 

1017.  Why  do  we  feel  fatigue  ? 

Because  those  organs  which  stimulate  the  mechanism  of  the 
body  to  act,  themselves  require  rest  and  repair.  When  the  brain 
and  nerves  arrive  at  that  state,  they  make  their  condition  known  to 
the  system  generally,  by  indications  which  we  denominate  fatigue. 

1018.  Why,  after  rest,  do  we  return  invigorated  to  our 
labours  ? 

Because  the  nervous  system  has  accumulated,  during  the  hours 
of  rest,  a  fresh  amount  of  that  vital  force  which  we  call  the  nervous 
fluid,  a»d  by  which  the  various  organs  of  the  body  are  excited  to 
perforri  the  duties  assigned  to  them. 

1019.  What  is  sleep? 

Sleep  is  understood  to  be  that  state  of  the  body  in  which  the 
relation  of  the  brain  to  some  parts  of  the  body  is  temporarily 


There  are  some  parts  of  the  body  that  never  sleep  :  such  are  the 
heart,  the  lungs,  the  organs  of  circulation,  and  those  parts  of  the 
nervous  system  that  direct  their  operations. 

But  when  sleep  overtakes  the  system,  it  seems  as  if  the  relations 
of  those  parts  under  the  controul  of  the  will  were  temporarily 
suspended ;  as  if,  for  instance,  those  nerves  which  move  the  arms, 
the  legs,  the  eyes,  the  tongue,  &c.,  were  all  at  once  unfastened, 
just  as  the  strings  of  an  instrument  are  relaxed  by  the  turning  of 
a  key,  or  the  throwing  down  of  a  bridge  over  which  they  were 
stretched. 

\Vliat  is  mear,t  by  the  temporary  suspension  of  the  relation  of  the  brain  to 
some  parts  of  the  body,  may  be  thus  explained.  Notice  a  man  when  he  sits 
dosing  in  a  chair:  at  first  his  head  is  held  up,  the  brain  controlling  the  muscles 
of  the  neck,  and  keeping  the  head  erect.  But  drowsiness  comes  on,  the  brain 
begins  to  withdraw  its  influence,  and  the  muscles  of  the  neck  becoming  as 
it  were  "  unstrung,"  the  head  drops  down  upon  the  breast.  But  the  sleep  is 
unsound,  and  disturbed  by  surrounding  noises.  The  brain  is  therefore  fre- 
quently excited  to  return  ils  influence  to  the  muscles,  and  draw  up  the  head  of 


THE   BBASON   WHY.  247 

••»•     ••          HP  ••  I  •!..•••-  .!•••••!• -.  !••!•!  •!!••  .  .••  ,    .        .      ,^| 

1  Yet  a  little  sleep,  &  little  slumber,  a  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep :  So 
shall  thy  poverty  come  as  one  that  travelleth ;  and  thy  want  <*s  an 
armed  man."— PBOVEBBS  xxr. 


the  sleeper.  He  gives  a  sudden  start,  every  muscle  is  tightened  in  an  instant, 
up  goes  the  head,  the  eyes  open,  the  ears  listen,  until  a  feeling  of  security  and 
composure  returns ;  the  sleep  again  deepens,  the  nervous  connection  is  again 
withdrawn,  and  then  down  drops  the  head  as  before. 

1020.  Why  do  we  dream  ? 

Dreams  appear  to  arise  from  the  excitement  of  the  brain 
during  those  hours  when  its  connection  with  the  other  parts  of 
the  living  organism  is  suspended.  For  instance  :  a  man  dreams 
that  he  is  pursued  by  a  furious  animal,  and  the  mind  passes 
through  all  the  excitement  of  flying  from  danger  j  but  the 
connection  between  the  moving  power,  and  the  machinery  of  motion 
being  suspended,  no  motion  takes  place.  The  same  impressions 
upon  the  brain,  when  the  nerves  were  "  strung"  to  the  muscles, 
would  have  caused  a  rapid  flight,  and  a  vigorous  effort  to  escape 
from  the  apprehended  danger. 

1021.  Why  do  suppers,  when  indigestible  substances  are 
eaten,  produce  dreaming  ? 

Probably  because,  as  the  digestive  organs  are  oppressed,  and 
those  parts  of  the  nervous  system  which  stimulate  the  organs  of 
digestion  are  excited  by  excessive  action,  those  portions  of  the  brain 
which  are  not  immediately  employed  by  the  digestive  process  are 
disturbed  by  that  sympathy  which  is  observed  to  pievail  between 
the  relative  parts  and  functions  of  the  body. 

1022.  Why  do  we  yawn  ? 

Because,  as  we  become  weary,  the  nervous  impulses  which  direct 
the  respiratory  movements  are  enfeebled.  It  has  been  said  that 
those  movements  are  involuntary,  and  that  the  parts  engaged  in 
producing  them  are  not  subject  to  fatigue.  But  the  operation  of 
breathing  is,  to  some  extent,  voluntary,  though  when  we  cease  to 
direct  it  voluntarily,  it  is  involuntarily  continued  by  organs  which 
know  no  fatigue. 

When,  therefore,  we  feel  weary — still  controuling  our  breathing 
in  our  efforts  to  move  or  to  speak — there  frequently  arrives  a  period 
when,  for  a  few  seconds,  the  respiratory  process  is  suspended.  It 
seems  to  be  the  point  at  which  the  voluntary  nerves  of  respiration 
are  about  to  deliver  their  office  over  to  the  involuntary  nerves ;  but 


248  THE   REASON    WHY. 


"And  it  shall  be,  when  they  say  unto  thee,  Wherefore  sighest  thou  ?  that  thou 

shalt  answer,  For  the  tidings,  because  it  cometh ;  and  every  heart  shall 

melt,  and  all  hands  shall  be  feeble."— EZEKIEL  xxi. 

the  pause  in  the  respiration  has  caused  a  momentary  deficiency  of 
breath,  and  the  involuntary  nerves  of  respiration,  coming1  suddenly 
to  the  aid  of  the  lungs,  cause  a  spasmodic  action  of  the  parts 
involved,  and  a  yawn,  attended  by  a  deep  inspiration  to  compensate 
for  the  cessation  of  breathing,  are  the  result. 

1023.  Why  do  we  cough  ? 

Because  the  respiratory  organs  are  excited  by  the  presence  of 
some  body  foreign  or  unnatural  to  them.  A  cough  is  an  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  air  tubes  to  free  themselves  from  some  source  of 
irritation.  And  so  important  are  the  organs  of  breathing  to  the 
welfare  of  the  body,  that  the  muscles  of  the  chest,  back,  and 
abdomen,  unite  in  the  endeavour  to  get  rid  of  the  exciting 
substance. 

1024.  Why  do  we  sneeze  ? 

Because  particles  of  matter  enter  the  nostrils  and  excite  the 
nerves  of  feeling  and  of  smell.  In  sneezing,  as  in  coughing,  the 
effort  is  to  free  the  parts  affected  from  the  intrusion  of  some  matters 
of  an  objectionable  nature.  And  in  this  case,  as  in  the  former  one, 
there  is  a  very  general  sympathy  of  other  organs  with  the  part 
affected,  and  an  energetic  effort  to  get  rid  of  the  evil. 

1025.  Why  do  we  sigh  ? 

Thi  action  of  sighing  arises  from  very  similar  causes  to  those  of 
yawning.  But  in  sighing,  the  nervous  depression  is  caused  by 
grief',  while  in  yawning,  it  is  the  result  of fatigue.  In  sighing,  the 
effect  is  generally  caused  by  an  expiration — in  yawning  by  an 
inspiration.  The  mind,  wearied  and  weakened  by  sorrow, 
omits  for  a  few  seconds  to  continue  the  respiratory  process ;  and 
then  suddenly  there  comes  an  involuntary  expiration  of  the  breath, 
causing  a  faint  sound  as  it  passes  the  organs  of  the  voice. 

1026.  W  hy  do  we  laugh  ? 

Laughing  is  caused  by  the  very  opposite  influences  that  produce 
sighing.  The  nervous  system  is  highly  excited  by  some  external 
cause.  The  impression  is  so  intense,  and  the  mind  so  fixed  upon  it, 
that  the  respiratory  process  is  irregular,  and  uncontrolled.  Persona 


THE    REASON    WHY. 


249 


Except  ye  utter  by  the  tongue  words  easy  to  be  understood,  how  shall  it  be 
known  what  is  spoken?  for  ye  shall  speak  into  the  air."— CORINTH,  xiv. 


excited  to  a  fit  of  laughter  generally  hold  their  breath  until  they 
can  hold  it  no  longer,  and  then  suddenly  there  is  a  quick  expiration 
causing  eccentric  sounds,  the  mind  being  too  intently  fixed  upon  the 
cause  of  excitement,  either  to  moderate  the  sounds,  or  to  confront 
the  breathing. 

1027.  Why  do  we  hiccough  ? 

Hiccough  is  caused  by  a  spasmodic  twitching  of  the  diaphragm, 
a  thin  muscular  membrane  which  divides  the  chest  from  the 
abdomen.  It  generally  arises  from  sympathy  with  the  stomach; 
and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  muscular  twitches  and  jerks  are 
so  many  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  diaphragm  to  assist  the  stomach 
to  get  rid  of  some  undigested  matter. 

1028.  Why  do  we  snore  ? 

Snoring  is  caused  by  air  sweeping  through  the  passages  that  lead 
from  the  mouth  through  the  nostrils,  and  which,  in  our  waking 
moments,  are  capable  of  certain  muscular  modifications  to  adapt 
them  to  our  breathing.  But  as  in  sleeping  the  nervous  controul 
over  them  is  withdrawn,  they  are  left  to  the  action  of  the  air  which, 
in  sweeping  by  them,  sets  them  in  vibration. 

"We  have  endeavoured,  by  the  employment  of  the  simplest  language,  and  by 
reference  to  some  of  the  most  familiar  phenomena  of  nature,  to  impart  to  tho 
reader  a  clear  conception  of  those  sublime  laws  which  controul  our  being,  and 
afford  evidence  of  the  goodne>.s  and  power  of  that  Almighty  God  to  whom  we 
are  indebted  for  the  life  that  we  enjoy,  and  the  varied  and  beautiful  existences 
which,  to  the  rightly  constituted  mind,  make  the  earth  a  vast  aggregation  of 
interesting  objects.  We  will  now,  before  we  pass  on  to  the  final  section  of  our 
work,  review  some  of  the  more  important  facts  that  have  been  communicated, 
and  devote  a  few  pages  to  meditations  upon  the  formation  of  the  human  body — 
that  wonderful  temple  of  which  each  of  us  is  a  tenant. 

We  have  described  man's  organisation.  What  is  that  organisation  for  /  It  is 
to  make  use  of  the  elements  upon  which  man  exists.  The  lungs  mal«  use  of  the 
air;  the  eye  makes  use  of  the  light;  the  stomach,  and  the  system  generally, 
make  use  of  water ;  every  part  of  the  body  uses  heat ;  and  all  pai'ts  of  the  sys- 
tem demand  food.  The  hand  feeds  as  constantly  as  the  mouth.  The  mouth  i« 
the  receptacle  of  food,  by  which  the  body  is  to  be  fed ;  the  stomach  is  tho 
kitchen  in  which  food  is  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  body ;  and  the  blood-vessels 
are  the  canals  through  which  the  food  is  sent  to  those  members  of  the  body 
that  are  in  need  of  it.  When  we  speak  of  man's  "  organs  "  or  "  members,"  we 
speak  of  those  parts  of  the  living  machinery  by  which  the  elements  are  used  up, 
or  employed,  for  man's  benefit.  And  this  view  of  the  subject,  bearing  in  mind 
that  the  body  is  held  together  as  the  temple  of  a  living  Spirit,  superior  to  mere 
tjesh  and  blood,  gives  us  a  higher  and  clearer  perception  of  the  distinction 

II* 


250  THE   REASON    WHY. 


'  Not  unto  us,  O  Lord,  not  unto  us,  but  unto  thy  name  give  glory,  for  thy 
mercy,  and.  for  thy  truth's  sake."  -PSALM  cxv. 


between  the  body  and  the  soul  than  that  which  we  might  otherwise  entertain. 
The  body  is  a  machine,  working  for  the  spirit,  which  is  its  owner.  While  the 
machine  works,  the  spirit  directs  and  influences  its  actions.  But  when  the 
machine  stops,  the  spirit  resigns  its  power  over  a  ruined  temple,  quits  it,  and 
flies  to  a  region  where,  as  a  spirit,  it  becomes  subject  to  a  new  order  of  existence 
consistent  with  its  severance  from  earthly  things  and  laws,  and  there  it  enters 
upon  its  eternal  destiny,  according  to  the  judgments  and  appointments  of  God. 
It  is  no  longer  dependent  upon  a  relation  between  spiritual  and  material  laws. 

Suppose  that  the  air  which  man  breathes,  instead  of  returning  from  his  lungs 
clear  and  imperceptible  to  sight,  were  tinged  with  colour;  we  should  see, 
that  every  time  a  man  breathed,  the  air  would  rush  in  a  stream  into  his  mouth, 
and  then  return  again ;  and  the  air  which  returned  would,  being  warm,  be 
lighter  than  the  outer  air,  and  would  rise  upward  over  the  man's  head,  whe-  e, 
cooling  and  mingling  with  the  outer  air,  it  would  descend  again.  We  do,  in 
fact,  see  this  action  evidenced ;  when  in  winter  time  the  cold  condenses  the  vapour 
of  the  breath,  we  see  the  little  cloud  constantly  rising  before  the  breather's  face, 
and  dispersing  in  the  surrounding  air. 

Is  it  not  a  wonderful  thing  that  that  clear  and  elastic  substance,  which  you 
cannot  feel,  though  it  touches  every  part  of  your  body,  and  which  you  cannot 
see,  is  composed  of  two  distinct  bodies,  having  very  different  properties ;  and 
that  the  two  bodies  can  easily  be  separated  from  each  other? 

Air  is  of  the  first  importance  to  life.  Hence  it  is  provided  for  us  every- 
where. We  require  air  every  second,  water  every  few  hours,  and  food  at  inter- 
vals considerably  apart.  Air  is  therefore  provided  for  us  everywhere.  Whether 
we  stand  or  sit ;  whether  we  dwell  in  a  valley  or  upon  a  mountain ;  whether  we 
go  into  the  cellar  under  our  house,  or  into  the  garret  at  the  top  of  it,  air  is  there 
provided  for  us.  God,  who  made  it  a  law  that  man  should  breathe  to  live,  also 
sent  him  air  bundantly,  that  he  might  comply  with  that  law.  And  all  that  is 
required  from  man  in  this  respect  is,  that  he  will  not  shut  out  God's  bounty,  but 
receive  it  freely. 

As  we  have  employed  the  idea  that  if  tho  air  were  coloured  we  should  have 
the  opportunity  of  marking  the  process  of  breathing,  let  us  enlarge  upon  this, 
and  suppose  that  every  time  the  air  were  returned  from  the  lungs  it  became  of  a 
darker  colour,  the  darkness  denoting  increasing  impurity.  If  we  placed  a  man 
in  a  room  full  of  pure  air,  we  should  see  the  air  enter  his  lungs,  and  sent  back 
slightly  tinged;  but  this  would  disperse  itself  with  the  other  air  of  the  room 
and  scarcely  be  perceptible.  As  the  man  continued  to  breathe,  however,  each 
measure  of  ah*  returning  from  the  lungs  would  serve  to  pollute  that  abiding 
in  the  room,  until  at  last  the  whole  mass  would  become  cloudy  and  discoloured, 
and  we  should  sees  such  a  change  as  occurs  when  water  is  turned  from  a  pure  and 
clear  state  into  a  muddy  condition.  '1  he  air  does  become  polluted  with  each 
respiration,  and  although  it  is  colourless,  it  is  as  impure  as  if  with  every  breath 
given  oif  from  the  lungs  it  becamu  of  a  dark  colour  in  proportion  to  its 
impurity. 

Thus  we  see  how  important  it  is  that  we  should  provide  ourselves  with  pure 
air ;  and  tnat,  in  seeking  warmth  and  comfort  in  our  houses,  we  should  provide 
an  adequate  supply  of  fresh  atmosphere— because  it  is  more  vital  to  life  than 
either  water  or  food. 

Indeed,  so  constant  is  our  requirement  of  air,  that  if  ice  had  to  fetch  U,fot 


THE    REASON   WHY.  251 


"There is  a  natural  body,  and  there  is  a  spiritual  body."— i  COETNTHIASS  xv. 


purposes  of  breathing,  or  simply  to  raise  it  to  our  moutlis,  as  we  do  water 
when  we  drink,  it  would  be  the  sole  occupation  of  our  lives— we  could  do 
nothing  else.  For  this  reason,  God  has  sent  the  air  to  us,  and  not  required  us 
to  go  to  the  air.  And  the  great  error  of  man  is,  that  in  too  many  instances, 
he  shuts  off  the  supply  from  himself,  and  brings  on  disease  and  pain  by 
inhaling  a  poisonous  compound,  instead  of  air  of  a  healthful  kind,  which  bears 
an  adaptation  to  the  wants  of  life. 

Whilst  the  rooms  of  our  house  are  filled  with  air,  it  is  otherwise  with  water, 
which  we  require  in  less  degree  than  air.  If  we  have  not  the  artificial 
means  by  which  water  is  brought  to  our  houses,  through  th  ;  pipes  of  a  water 
company,  there  is  a  spring  or  a  pump  in  the  garden ;  or  in  the  absence  of  these, 
a  good  sound  cask,  standing  at  the  end  of  our  house,  forming  a  receptacle 
to  the  water-pipes  that  surround  it,  provides  us  with  a  supply  of  water  distilled 
from  the  clouds.  If  we  were  to  drink  a  good  draught  of  water  once  a  day,  that 
would  be  sufficient  for  all  the  purposes  of  life,  as  far  as  regards  the  alimentary 
uses  of  water.  Man  is,  tharefore,  allowed  to  go  to  the  stream  for  his  drink,  and 
is  required  to  raise  it  to  his  lips  at  those  moments  when  he  uses  it. 

Although,  in  breathing,  man  separates  the  oxygen  of  the  air  from  the 
nitrogen  thereof,  he  does  not  separate  the  oxygen  of  the  water  from  the  hydrogen 
Water,  in  fact,  undergoes  no  change  in  the  body,  excepting  that  of  admixture 
with  the  substances  of  the  body.  And  its  uses  are,  to  moisten,  to  cool,  to 
cleanse,  and  also  to  nouri-.li  the  parts  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  But  it 
affords  no  nourishment  of  itself;  it  mixes  with  the  blood,  of  which  it  forms  a 
material  part,  and  is  the  means  of  conveying  the  nourishment  of  the  blood  to 
every  part  of  the  system.  After  it  lias  filled  this  office,  and  taken  up  impurities 
that  required  to  be  removed,  it  is  cast  out  of  the  system  again,  without 
undergoing  any  chemical  change. 

Man's  body  is  to  his  Soul,  in  many  respects,  what  a  house  is  to  its  occupant. 
But  how  superior  is  tho  dwelling  which  God  erected,  to  that  which  man  has 
built.  Reader,  come  out  of  yourself,  and  in  imagination  realise  the  abstraction 
of  the  Soul  from  the  body.  Make  an  effort  of  thought,  and  do  not  relinquish 
that  effort,  until  you  fancy  that  you  see  your  image  seated  on  a  chair  before 
you.  And  now  proceed  to  ask  yourself  certain  questions  respecting  your  bodily 
tenement— questions  which,  perchance,  have  never  occurred  to  you  before ;  but 
which  will  impress  themselves  the  more  forcibly  upon  you,  in  proportion  as  you 
realise  for  a  moment  the  idea  of  jour  Soul  examining  the  body  which  it 
inhabits.  There  sits  before  you  a  form  of  exquisite  proportions,  with  reference 
to  the  mode  of  life  it  has  to  pursue — the  wants  of  the  Soul  for  which  it  has 
to  care,  and  which  it  has  to  guard,  under  the  direction  of  that  Soul,  its 
owner  and  master. 

Over  the  brows  that  mark  the  intellectual  front  of  that  fine  form,  there 
fall  the  auburn  locks  of  youth,  or  the  grey  hair  of  venerable  age.  Each 
of  those  hairs  is  curiously  organised.  If  you  take  a  branch  of  a  tree,  and 
cut  it  across,  you  will  find  curious  markings  caused  by  vessels  of  various 
structure,  all  necessary  to  the  existence  of  the  plant.  In  the  centre  will  be 
found  cither  a  hollow  tube,  or  a  space  occupied  by  a  soft  substance  called 
pith.  Each  hair  of  your  head  is  as  curiously  formed  as  the  branch  of  a 
tree,  and  in  a  manner  not  dissimilar,  though  its  parts  are  so  minute 
that  the  unaided  eye  cannot  discern  them.  Every  hair  has  a  root,  just  as  a 
tree  has,  and  through  this  root  it  receives  its  nourishment.  As  the  vessel! 


252  THE    REASON    \VIIT. 


"  The  very  hairs  of  your  head  are  all  numbered." — M  ATTIIEVT  XI. 


which  feed  a  plant  are  always  proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  plant  itself,  how 
fine  must  be  those  vessels  which  form  the  roots  of  the  hair,  being  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  hair,  which  is  in  itself  so  small  that  the  eye  cannot  see 
its  structure?  The  hair  is,  in  fact,  an  animal  plant,  growing  upon  the 
body  in  much  the  same  mariner  that  plants  grow  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  But  how  does  this  hair  grow  ?  Not  alone  by  the  addition  of  matter 
at  its  roots,  pushing  up  and  enlor.gating  its  stem :  nourishment  passes 
up  through  its  whole  length,  and  is  deposited  upon  its  end,  just  as  the 
nourishment  of  a  tree  is  deposited  upon  its  extreme  branches.  If,  after 
having  your  hair  cut,  you  were  to  examine  its  ends  by  the  microscope,  you 
would  discover  the  abrupt  termination  left  by  the  scissors.  But  allow  the  hair 
to  grow,  and  then  examine  it,  and  you  will  discover  that  it  grows  from  its  point 
which,  in  comparison  with  its  former  state,  is  perfect  and  fine.  The  reason 
why  the  beard  is  so  hard  is,  that  the  ends  of  the  hair  are  continually  being 
shaved  off.  The  hair  of  the  beard,  if  allowed  to  grow,  would  become  almost  as 
soft  as  the  hair  of  the  head. 

But  why  is  man's  head  thus  covered  with  hair?  For  precisely  the  same  reason 
that  a  house  is  tha'ched— to  keep  the  inmates  warm.  We  might  add,  also,  to 
give  beauty  to  the  edifice.  But  as  beauty  is  a  conventional  quality— and  if  men 
were  without  it  they  would  consider  themselves  quite  as  handsome  as  they  do 
now — we  will  not  enlarge  upon  the  argument.  Our  bald-headed  friends,  too, 
might  have  reason  to  complain  of  such  a  partial  hypothesis.  The  brain 
is  the  great  organ  upon  which  the  health,  the  welfare,  and  the  happiness  of  the 
system  depends.  The  skull,  therefore,  may  be  regarded  as  analagous  to  the 
"  strong  box,"  the  iron  chest  in  which  the  merchant  keeps  his  treasure.  There 
is  no  point  at  which  the  brain  can  be  touched  to  its  injury,  without  first  doing 
violence  to  the  skull.  Even  the  spinal  cord  runs  down  the  back  through  a 
tunnel  or  tube,  formed  in  a  number  of  strong  bones,  so  closely  and  firmly  jointed 
together,  that  they  are  commonly  termed  "  the  back-bone." 

Look  at  the  eyebrows.  What  purpose  do  they  fulfil  ?  Precisely  that  of  a 
shed,  or  arch  placed  over  a  window  to  shelter  it  from  ra;n.  But  for  (he  eye- 
brows the  perspiration  would  frequently  run  from  the  brow  into  the  eyes,  and 
obscure  the  sight ;  a  man  wa'king  in  a  shower  of  rain  would  scarcely  be  able  to 
see ;  and  a  mariner  in  a  storm  would  find  a  double  difficulty  in  braving  the 
tempest. 

Now  we  come  to  the  eye,  which  is  the  window  of  the  Soul's  abode.  And  what 
a  window !  how  curiously  constructed !  how  wisely  guarded !  In  the  eyelashes, 
as  well  as  the  eyebrows,  we  see  the  hair  fulfilling  a  useful  purpose,  differ 'ng 
from  any  already  described.  The  eyelashes  serve  to  keep  cold  winds,  dust,  and 
too  bright  sun,  from  injuring  or  entering  the  windows  of  the  body.  When  we 
walk  against  the  east  wind,  we  bring  the  tips  of  our  eyelashes  together,  and  in 
that  way  exclude  the  cold  air  from  the  surface  of  the  eyo ;  and  in  the  samo 
manner  we  exclude  the  dust  and  modify  the  light.  The  eyelashes,  therefore, 
are  like  so  many  sentries,  constantly  moving  to  and  fro,  protecting  a  most 
important  organ  from  injury.  The  eyelids  are  the  shutters  by  which  tht» 
windows  are  opened  and  closed.  But  they  al  o  cleanse  the  eye,  keeping  it 
bright  and  moist.  There  are,  moreover,  in  the  lids  of  each  eye  or  window, 
little  glands,  or  springs,  by  which  a  clear  fluid  is  formed  and  supplied  for 
cleansing  the  eye.  The  eye  is  placed  in  a  socket  of  the  skull,  in  which  it  has 
free  motion,  turning  rigV.t  or  left,  up  or  down,  to  serve  -.the  purpose  of  tlie 


TiJE    KEASON    WHY.  252 


"Thou  art  of  purer  eyes  than  to  behold  evil,  and  canst  not  look  on  iniquity." 
HABAKKUK  i. 


inhabitant  of  the  dwelling.  Of  the  structure  of  the  eye  itself  we  will  not  say 
much,  for  the  engravings  will  afford  a  clearer  understanding  than  a  lengthy 
written  description.  But  we  would  have  you  examine  the  formation  of  the 
iris  of  the  living  eye,  the  ring  which  surrounds  the  pupil.  Ilold  a  light  to  it, 
and  you  w  11  find  that  the  iris  will  contract  and  diminish  the  pupil ;  withdraw 
the  light,  and  the  iris  will  relax,  and  the  pupil  expand,  thus  regulating  tha 
amount  of  light.  The  images  of  external  objects  ate  formed  upon  the  retina  of 
the  eye,  a  thin  membrane,  spread  out  upon  the  extremity  of  a  large  nerve, 
which  proceeds  immediately  to  the  brain,  and  forms  the  telegraphic  cord  by 
which  information  is  given  to  the  mind,  of  everything  visible  going  on  within 
t  he  range  of  sight. 

Now,  think  for  a  few  moments  upon  the  wonderful  structure  of  those  windows 
of  the  body.  Can  you  fancy,  in  the  walls  of  your  house,  a  window  which 
protects  itself,  cleanses  itself,  and  turns  in  any  direction  at  the  mere  will  of  the 
tenant;  and  when  that  tenant  is  oppressed  by  excess  of  light,  draws  its  own 
curtain,  and  gives  him  ease ;  and  when  he  falls  asleep,  closes  its  own  shutters, 
and  protects  itself  from  the  cold  and  dust  of  night,  and  the  instant  he  awakes 
in  the  morning,  opens,  cleanses  itself  with  a  fluid  which  it  has  prepared  during 
the  night,  and  kept  in  readiness ;  and  repeats  this  routine  of  duty  day  after  day 
for  half  a  century,  without  becoming  impaired  ?  Such,  nevertheless,  is  the 
wonderful  structure  of  the  window  of  the  body— the  ey». 

In  some  scientific  works  that  have  recently  been  published,  curious  investiga- 
tions have  been  made  known.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  eye  is  impressed 
momentarily,  as  a  photographic  plate  is  impressed  by  the  rays  of  the  sun.  But 
the  photography  of  the  eye  has  this  extraordinary  quality— that  one  imago 
passes  away,  and  another  takes  its  place  immediately,  without  confusion  or 
indistinctness.  But  the  most  wonderful  assertion  of  all  is,  that  under  the 
excitement  of  memory  these  photographic  images  are  restored;  and  that  whon§ 
"  in  our  mind's  eye,"  we  see  the  image  of  some  dear  departed  friend,  the  retina 
really  revives  an  image  which  once  fell  upon  its  sensitive  surface,  and  which 
image  has  been  stored  up  for  many  years  in  the  sacred  portfolio  of  its 
affections ! 

Another  extraordinary  assertion  is  one  which  comes  supported  by  a  degree  of 
authencity  that  entitles  it  to  consideration.  It  is  said  that  the  eye  of  a  dead 
man  retains  an  impression  of  the  last  picture  that  fell  upon  the  faithful  retina. 
Dr.  Sandford,  of  America,  examined  the  eye  of  a  man  named  Beardley,  who  had 
been  murdered  at  Auburn,  and  he  published  in  the  Boston  Atlas  the  following 
statement :— "  At  first  we  suggested  the  saturation  of  the  eye  in  a  weak  solution 
of  atrophine,  which  evidently  produced  an  enlarged  state  of  the  pupil.  On 
observing  this,  we  touched  the  end  of  tlie  optic  nerve  with  the  extract,  when  the 
eye  instantly  became  protuberant.  We  now  applied  a  powerful  lens,  and 
discovered  in  the  pupil,  the  rude,  worn-away  figure  of  a  man,  with  a  li-ht  coat, 
beside  whom  was  a  round  stone,  standing  or  suspended  in  the  air,  with  a  small 
hand.e,  stuck  in  the  earth.  The  remainder  was  debris,  evidently  lost  from 
the  destruction  of  the  optic,  and  its  separation  from  the  mother  brain.  Had  we 
performed  the  operation  when  the  eye  was  entire  in  the  socket,  with  all  its 
powerful  connection  with  the  brain,  there  is  not  the  least  doubt  but  that  we 
should  have  detected  the  last  idea  and  impression  made  on  the  mind  and  eye  of 
ihe  unfortunate  man.  The  picture  would  evidently  be  entire ;  and  perhaps  we 
should  have  had  the  contour,  or  better  still,  the  exact  figure  of  the  murderer. 


254  THE    REASON    WHY. 


"Ke  not  rash  with  thy  mouth,  and  let  not  thine  heart  be  hasty  to  utter  anything 

before  God :  for  God  is  in  heaven,  and  thou  upon  earth ;  therefore  let  thy 

words  be  few." — ECCLESIASTES  v. 


The  last  impression  on  the  brain  before  death  is  always  more  terrible  from  fear 
than  any  other  cause,  and  figures  impressed  on  the  pupil  more  distinct,  which 
w«  attribute  to  the  largeness  of  the  optic  nerve,  and  its  free  communication  with 
the  brain."  Whether  the  supposition,  which  seems  to  be  supported  by  the 
experiment  above  detailed,  be  correct  or  not,  it  is  in  no  sense  more  wonderful 
than  the  facts  which  are  already  known  respecting  this  curious  aud  perfect  organ. 

The  nose  is  given  us  for  two  purposes— to  enable  us  to  respire  and  to  smell. 
As  odours  arise  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  cup  or  funnel  of  the  nose 
is  turned  down  to  meet  them.  In  the  nostrils  hair  again  serves  a  useful 
purpose.  It  not  only  warms  the  air  which  enters  the  nostrils,  but  it  springs 
out  from  all  sides,  and  forms  an  intersecting  net,  closing  the  nostrils  against 
tlust,  and  the  intrusion  of  small  insects.  If  by  any  means,  as  when  taking  a 
sharp  sniff,  foreign  matters  enter  the  nostrils,  the  nose  is  armed  with  a  set  of 
nerves  which  communicate  the  fact  to  certain  muscles,  and  the  organs  of 
respiration  unite  with  those  muscles  to  expel  the  intruding  substances.  In  this 
action,  the  diaphragm,  or  the  muscle  which  divides  the  abdomen  from  the 
chest,  is  pressed  down,  the  lungs  are  filled  with  air,  the  passage  by  which  that 
air  would  otherwise  escape  through  the  mouth,  is  closed  up,  and  then,  all  at 
once,  with  considerable  force,  the  air  is  pressed  through  the  nostrils,  to  fr«>« 
them  from  the  annoying  substance.  So  great  is  the  force  with  which  this 
action  takes  place,  that  the  passage  into  the  mouth  is  generally  pushed  open 
occasioning  the  person  in  whom  the  action  takes  place,  to  cry  "  'tsha !"  and 
thus  is  formed  what  is  termed  a  sneeze.  As  with  the  eye,  so  with  the  nose — 
innumerable  nerves  are  distributed  over  the  lining  membrane,  and  these  nerves 
are  connected  with  larger  nerves  passing  to  the  brain,  through  which 
everything  relating  to  the  sense  of  smell  is  communicated. 

The  nose  acts  like  a  custom-house  officer  to  the  system.  It  is  highly  sensitive 
to  the  odour  of  most  poisonous  substances.  It  readily  detects  hemlock, 
henbane,  monk's  hood,  and  the  plants  containing  prussic  acid.  It  recognises 
the  foeted  smell  of  drains,  and  warns  us  not  to  breathe  the  polluted  air.  The 
nose  is  so  sensitive,  that  air  containing  a  200,000th  part  of  bromine  vapour  will 
instantly  be  detected  by  it.  It  will  recognise  the  I,b00,000th  part  of  a  grain  of 
otto  of  roses,  or  the  13,000,000th  part  of  a  grain  of  musk  !  It  tells  ns  in  the 
mornings  that  our  bed-rooms  are  impure ;  it  catches  the  first  fragrance  of  the 
morning  air,  and  conveys  to  us  the  invitation  of  the  flowers  to  go  forth  into  the 
fields,  and  inhale  their  sweet  breath.  To  be  "led  by  the  nose,"  has  hitherto  been 
used  as  a  phrase  of  reproach.  But  to  have  a  good  nose,  and  to  follow  its 
guidance,  is  one  of  the  safest  and  shortest  ways  to  the  enjoyment  of  health. 

The  mouth  answers  the  fourfold  purpose  of  the  organ  of  taste,  of  sound,  of 
mastication,  and  of  breathing.  In  all  of  these  operations,  except  in  breathing, 
the  various  parts  of  the  mouth  are  engaged.  In  eating  we  us*e  the  lips,  tho 
tongue,  and  the  teeth.  The  teeth  serve  the  purpose  of  grinding  the  food,  tho 
tongue  turns  it  during  the  process  of  grinding,  and  delivers  it  up  to  the  throat 
for  the  purposes  of  the  stomach,  when  sufficiently  masticated.  The  lips  serve  to 
confine  the  food  in  the  mouth,  and  assist  in  swallowing  it,  and  there  are  glands 
underneath  the  tongue,  and  in  the  sides  of  the  mouth,  which  pour  in  a  fluid  to 
moisten  the  food.  And  so  watchful  are  those  glands  of  their  duty,  that  the  mere 
imagination  frequently  causes  them  to  act.  Their  fluid  is  required  to  modify 


TJ1K   EEASON    WHY.  255 


"  I  say  unto  you,  Swear  not  at  all ;  neither  by  heaven,  for  it  is  God's  throne ; 
Nor  by  the  earth ;  for  it  is  his  footstool." — MATTHEW  v. 


the  intensity  of  different  flavours  and  condiments  in  which  man,  with  his  love  of 
eating,  will  indulge.  Thus,  when  we  eat  anything  very  acid,  as  a  lemon,  or  any- 
thing very  irritating,  as  Cayenne  pepper,  the  effect  thereof  upon  the  sensitive 
nerves  of  the  tongue  is  greatly  modified  by  a  free  flow  of  saliva  into  the  mouth. 
And  if  we  merely  fancy  the  taste  of  any  such  things,  those  glands  are  so  watch- 
lul,  that  they  will  immediately  pour  out  their  fluid  to  mitigate  the  supposed 
effect. 

In  speaking,  we  use  the  lips,  the  teeth,  the  tongue ;  and  the  chest  supplies 
air,  which,  being  controlled  in  its  emission,  by  a  delicate  apparatus  at  the 
mouth  of  the  wind-pipe,  causes  the  various  sounds  which  we  have  arranged  into 
speech,  and  by  which,  under  certain  laws,  we  are  enabled  to  understand  each 
other's  wants,  participate  in  each  other's  emotions,  express  our  loves,  our  hopes, 
our  fears,  and  gle.ni  those  facts,  the  accumulation  of  which  constitutes  know- 
ledge, enhances  the  happiness  of  man,  and  elevates  him,  in  its  ultimate  results 
above  the  lower  creatures  to  which  the  blessing  of  speech  is  denied. 

The  curious  structure  of  the  tongue,  and  the  organs  of  speech,  would  fill  a 
very  interesting  volume.  The  tongue  is  unfortunately  much  abused,  not  only 
by  those  who  utter  foul  words,  and  convert  the  blessing  of  speech,  which 
should  improve  and  refine,  into  a  source  of  wicked  and  profane  language ;  but  it 
constantly  remonstrates  against  the  abuse  of  food,  and  the  use  of  things  which 
are  not  only  unnecessary  for  the  good  of  our  bodies,  but  prejudicial  to  their 
health.  When  the  body  is  sufficiently  fed,  the  tongue  ceases  its  relish,  and 
derives  no  more  satisfaction  from  eating :  but  man  contrives  a  variety  of  inven- 
tions to  whip  the  tongue  up  to  an  unnatural  performance  of  its  duty,  and  thus 
we  not  only  over-eat,  but  eat  things  that  have  no  more  business  in  our  stomachs, 
than  have  the  stones  that  we  walk  upon.  Can  we  wonder,  then,  that  disease  is 
so  prevalent,  and  that  death  calls  for  many  of  us  so  soon. 

That  wonderful  essence,  the  Soul  of  man,  rises  above  all  finite  knowledge. 
Its  wonders  and  powers  will  never,  probably,  be  understood  until  when,  in  a 
future  state  of  existence,  the  grandest  of  all  mysteries  shall  be  explained. 
When  we  talk  of  the  brain,  we  speak  of  that  which  it  is  easy  to  comprehend  as 
the  organ,  or  the  seat  of  the  mind ;  when  we  speak  of  the  mind,  we  have 
greater  difficulty  in  comprehending  the  meaning  of  the  term  we  employ ;  but 
when  we  speak  of  the  Soul,  we  have  reached  a  point  which  defies  our  under- 
standing, because  our  knowledge  is  limited.  The  brain  may  be  injured  by  a 
blow ;  the  mind  may  be  pained  by  a  disagreeable  sight,  or  offended  by  a  harsh 
word ;  but  the  Soul  can  only  be  influenced  secondarily  through  the  mind, 
which  is  primarily  affected  by  the  organs  of  the  material  senses.  Thus  the  hap- 
piness or  the  misery  of  the  Soul  depends  to  a  very  great  extent  upon  the  proper 
fulfilment  of  the  duties  of  the  senses,  which  are  the  servants  of  tho  Soul,  over 
which  the  mind  presides,  as  the  steward  who  mediates  between  the  employer 
and  the  employed 

The  Ear,  which  is  taught  to  delisrht  in  sweet  sounds,  and  in  pure  language, 
is  a  better  servant  of  the  master  Soul,  than  one  which  delights  not  in  music, 
and  which  listens,  with  approbation  or  indifference,  to  the  oaths  of  the  profane. 
The  Eye  which  rejoices  in  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  in  scenes  of  domestic 
happiness  and  love,  is  a  more  faithful  servant  than  one  that  delights  in  wit- 
nessing scenes  of  rtvelry,  dissipation,  and  strife.  The  Nose  which  esteems  the 
sweet  odour  of  flowers,  or  the  life-giving  freshness  of  the  pm-e  air,  is  more 
dutiful  to  his  master  than  one  that  rejects  not  the  polluted  atmosphere  of 


256  THE    BKASOX    WHY. 


"Out  of  the  same  mouth  proceedeth  blessing  and  cursing.     My  brethren,  these 
things  ought  not  so  to  be."— JAMES  in. 


neglected  dwellings.  The  Mouth  which  thirsts  for  morbid  gratification  of 
taste,  is  more  worthless  than  one  which  is  contented  with  wholesome  viands, 
aud  ruled  by  the  proper  instincts  of  its  duty.  Who  that  can  understand  tho 
wonderful  structure  of  the  tongue,  and  the  complicated  mechanism  of  tho 
organs  of  speech  and  of  hearing,  could  be  fouid  to  take  pleasure  in  the  utter- 
ance of  oaths,  and  of  words  of  vulgar  meaning?  Were  those  beautiful  cords 
that  like  threads  of  silk  are  woven  into  the  muscular  texture  of  the  mouth,  and 
along  which  the  essence  of  life  travels  with  the  quickness  of  thought,  to  do  the 
bidding  of  the  will — were  they  given  for  no  higher  use  than  to  sin  against  the 
God  who  gave  them,  and  upon  whose  mercy  their  existence  every  mon.ent 
depends  ? 

The  actions  of  the  senses  must  necessarily  affect  the  mind,  which  is  the  head 
steward  of  the  Soul;  and  the  Soul  becomes  rich  in  goodness,  or  poor  in  sin,  iu 
proportion  as  the  stewardship,  held  by  his  many  servants,  is  rightly  or  wrong- 
fully fulfilled.  As  in  an  establishment  where  the  servants  are  not  properly 
directed  and  ruled,  they  often  gain  the  ascendancy,  and  the  master  has  no  power 
over  them,  so  with  man,  when  he  gives  himself  up  to  sensual  indulgences.  The 
Soul  becomes  the  slave  of  the  senses— the  master  is  controlled  by  the  servants. 

With  regard  to  the  mechanism  of  motion,  let  us  take  the  case  of  a  man  who 
is  walking  a  crowded  thoroughfare,  and  we  shall  see  how  active  are  all  the 
servants  of  the  Soul,  under  the  influence  of  the  mind.  He  walks  along  in  a 
given  direction.  But  for  the  a«t  of  volition  in  the  mind,  not  a  muscle  would 
stir.  The  eye  is  watching  his  footsteps.  There  is  a  stone  in  his  path,  the  eye 
informs  the  mind,  the  mind  communicates  with  the  brain,  and  the  nerves 
stimulate  the  muscles  of  the  leg  to  lift  the  foot  a  little  higher,  or  turn  it 
on  one  side,  and  the  stone  is  avoided.  The  eye  alights  on  a  familiar  face, 
and  the  mind  remembers  that  the  eye  has  seen  that  face  before.  The  man 
goes  on  thinking  of  the  circumstance  under  which  he  saw  that  person,  and 
partially  forgets  his  walk,  and  the  direction  of  his  steps.  But  the  nerves  of 
volition  and  motion  unite  to  keep  the  muscles  up  to  their  work,  and  he  walks 
on  without  having  occasion  to  think  continually,  "  I  must  continue  walking." 
He  has  not  to  make  an  effort  to  lift  his  leg  alorg  between  each  interval  of  medi- 
tation :  he  walks  and  meditates  the  while.  Presently  a  danger  approaches  him 
from  behind.  The  eye  sees  it  not — knows  no  more,  in  fact,  than  if  it  were  dead. 
But  the  ear  sounds  the  alarm,  tells  the  man,  by  the  rumbling  of  a  wheel,  and  tho 
tramp  of  horses'  feet,  that  he  is  in  danger;  and  then  the  nerves,  putting  forth 
their  utmost  strength,  whip  the  muscles  up  to  the  quick  performance  of  their 
duty ;  the  man  steps  out  of  the  »vay  of  danger,  and  is  saved.  He  draws  iu-.ar  to 
a  sewer,  which  is  vomiting  forth  its  poisonous  exhalations.  The  eye  is  again 
unconscious  — it  cannot  see  tho  poison  lurking  in  the  air.  The  ear,  too,  is 
helpless ;  it  cannot  bear  witness  to  the  presence  of  that  enemy  to  life.  Hut  the 
nose  detcx5'.s  the  noxious  agent,  and  then  the  eye  points  out  the  direction  of 
the  sewer,  and  guides  his  footsteps  to  a  path  where  he  may  escape  the  injurious 
consequences.  A  clock  strikes,  the  ear  informs  him  that  it  is  the  hour  of  an 
appointment;  the  nerves  stimulate  the  muscles  again,  and  he  is  hastened 
»nward.  He  does  not  know  the  residence  of  his  friend,  but  his  tongue  asks  for 
him,  and  his  ear  makes  known  the  reply.  He  reaches  the  spot— sits— rests. 
Tho  action  of  the  muscles  is  stayed ;  the  nerves  are  for  a  time  time  at  rest.  Tho 
blood  which  had  flown  freely  to  feed  the  muscles  while  they  were  working; 


THE   EEASON    WHY.  257 


1 1  am  but  a  little  child :  I  know  not  how  to  go  out  or  come  in."— i  KiifGs  m. 


goes  more  steadily  through  the  arteries  and  veins,  and  the  lungs,  which  had 
been  purifying  the  blood  in  its  course,  partake  of  the  temporary  rest. 

Let  us  remember  that  there  are  two  sets  of  muscles,  acting  in  unison  with 
each  other,  to  produce  the  various  motions ;  they  are  known  by  the  general 
terms  of  flexors  and  extensors;  the  first  enable  us  to  bend  the  limbs,  the  other 
to  bring  the  limbs  back  to  their  former  position.  The  flexors  enable  us  to  close 
the  hand,  the  extensors  to  open  it  again.  The  flexors  enable  us  to  raise  the  foot 
from  the  ground ;  the  extensors  set  the  foot  down  again  in  the  place  desired. 
Consider  for  a  moment  the  nicety  with  which  the  powers  of  these  muscles  must 
be  balanced,  and  the  harmony  which  must  subsist  between  them  in  their 
various  operations.  When  we  are  closing  the  hand,  if  the  extensor  muscles  did 
not  gradually  yield  to  the  flexors— if  they  gave  up  their  hold  all  at  once,  th:j 
hand,  instead  of  closing  with  gentleness  and  ease,  would  be  jerked  together  in 
a  sudden  and  most  uncomfortable  manner.  If,  in  such  a  case,  you  were  to  lay 
your  hand  with  its  back  upon  the  table,  and  wish  to  close  the  hand,  the  fingers 
would  fall  down  upon  the  palm  suddenly,  like  the  lid  of  a  box.  Again,  consider 
how  awkward  it  would  be  in  such  a  case ;  our  walk  through  the  streets  would 
become  a  series  of  jumps  and  jerks ;  when  a  man  had  raised  his  foot,  after  it  had 
been  jerked  up,  there  it  would  stand  fixed  for  a  second  before  the  opposite 
muscles  could  put  on  their  power  to  draw  it  down  again.  This  case  is  not  at 
all  suppositions:  there  is  a  derangement  frequently  observed  in  horses,  in 
which  one  set  of  muscles  becomes  injured,  and  we  may  see  horses  suffering 
from  this  ailment,  trotting  along  with  one  of  their  legs  jerking  up  much 
higher  than  the  others,  and  set  down  again  with  difficulty,  just  in  the  manner 
described. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  very  nice  proportions  must  exist  between  the 
sizes  of  the  muscles  and  the  sizes  of  the  bones.  If  this  were  not  the  case,  our 
motions,  instead  of  being  firm  and  steady,  would  be  all  shaky  and  uncertain. 
In  old  persons  the  muscles  become  weak  and  relaxed  ;  hence  there  is  a  tendency 
in  the  movements  of  the  aged  to  fall,  as  it  were,  together ;  the  head  is  no  longer 
erect,  the  body  bends,  the  knees  totter,  and  the  arms  lean  towards  the  body  as 
for  support. 

In  the  child  a  somewhat  similar  state  of  things  exists.  The  muscles  have 
not  been  properly  developed,  nor  have  they  been  brought  sufficiently  under 
;he  controul  of  the  nervous  system.  The  child,  therefore,  totters  and  tumbles 
about,  and  it  is  not  until  it  has  stumbled  and  tumbled  some  hundreds  of  times 
in  its  little  history,  that  the  muscles  have  become  strong  enough  to  fulfil  their 
office,  or  have  been  brought  sufficiently  under  the  controul  of  the  nervous 
system,  to  perform  well  the  various  duties  required  from  them. 

In  all  these  things,  we  recognise  the  perfection  of  the  divine  works.  \Ve  are 
apt,  too  apt,  to  overlook  this  perfection,  because  it  prevails  in  everything;  but 
by  speculating  upon  what  inconveniences  we  might  suffer,  were  not  things 
ordained  as  they  are,  we  obtain  most  convincing  evidences  of  divine  goodness 
and  wisdom. 

Having  taken  this  view  of  the  muscular  system  of  the  external  man,  let  us 
turn  our  attention  to  the  muscles  of  the  internal  organs.  The  musclos  of  which 
we  have  been  speaking  are  called  the  voluntary  muscles,  because  we  have  them 
under  our  own  controul — they  are  subject  to  the  influences  of  our  will.  But 
there  is  the  other  set  of  muscles.  What  are  they  ?  We  talk  of  the  beating,  or  of 


258  THE   BEA80N    WHY. 


"  Watchman,  what  of  the  night  ?    The  watchman  said,  The  morning  cometh, 
and  also  the  night :  if  ye  will  enquire,  enquire  ye;  return,  come."— ISAIAH  xxi. 


the  palpitation,  of  the  heart.  But,  what  is  it  that  causes  the  heart  to  beat  ?  You 
cannot,  if  you  wish  it,  make  your  heart  beat  more  quickly  or  more  slowly.  Place 
your  finger  upon  your  pulse,  and  notice  the  degree  of  rapidity  with  which  its 
pulsations  follow.  Now  think  that  you  should  like  to  double  the  frequency  of 
those  pulsations.  Say  to  the  heart,  with  your  inner  voice,  that  you  wish  it  to 
beat  120  times  in  a  minute,  instead  of  60.  It  does  not  obey  you ;  it  does  not 
appreciate  your  command.  Now  place  your  finger  on  the  table,  and  ycur  watch 
by  the  side  of  your  hand,  and  tell  your  finger  to  beat  60  times  in  the  minute,  or 
100  times,  or  150  times,  or  200  times,  and  the  finger  will  obey  you— because  it  is 
moved  by  imtscles  which  are  subject  to  the  will,  while  the  heart  is  composed  of 
muscles  which  are  not  subject  to  the  will.  Why  should  this  be?  AVhy  should 
man  have  the  power  to  regulate  his  finger,  and  not  to  regulate  his  heart  ? 

For  the  sustentatiou  of  our  bodies  it  is  needful  that  the  blood  should  ever  be 
in  circulation.  If  the  heart  were  to  cease  beating  only  for  three  or  four  minutes 
(perhaps  less)  life  would  be  extinct.  In  this  short  time  the  whole  framework  of 
man,  beautiful  in  its  proportions,  perfect  in  its  parts,  would  pass  into  the  state 
of  dead  matter,  and  would  sim  ply  wait  the  decay  that  follows  death.  The  eye 
would  become  dull  and  glazed,  the  lips  would  turn  blue,  the  skin  would  acquire 
the  coldness  of  clay— love,  hope,  joy,  would  all  cease.  The  sweetest,  the  fondest 
ties  would  be  broken.  Flowers  might  bloom,  and  yield  their  fragrance,  but  they 
would  be  neither  seen  nor  smelt ;  the  sun  might  rise  in  its  brightest  splendour, 
yet  the  eye  would  not  be  sensitive  to  its  rays ;  the  rosy-cheeked  child  might 
climb  the  paternal  knee ;  but  there,  stiff,  cold,  without  joy,  or  pain,  or  emotion 
of  any  kind,  unconscious  as  a  block  of  marble,  would  sit  the  man  whose  heart 
for  a  few  moments  had  ceased  to  beat. 

How  wise,  then,  and  how  good  of  God,  that  he  has  not  placed  this  vital  organ 
under  our  own  care !  How  sudden  would  be  our  bereavements — how  frequent 
our  deaths,  how  sleepless  our  nights,  and  how  anxious  our  days,  if  we  had  to 
keep  our  own  hearts  at  work,  and  death  the  penalty  of  neglect. 

And  yet,  before  we  were  born,  until  we  reach  life's  latest  moment  — 
through  days  of  toil,  and  nights  of  rest -even  in  the  moments  of  our  deepest  sin 
against  the  God  who  at  the  time  is  sustaining  us,  our  hearts  beat  on,  never 
stopping,  never  wearying,  never  asking  rest. 

This  brings  us  to  another  reflection.  Our  arms  get  weary,  our  legs  falter 
from  fatigue,  the  mind  itself  becomes  overtaxed,  and  all  our  senses  fall  to  sleep. 
The  eye  sees  not,  the  ear  is  deaf  to  sound,  the  sentinels  that  surround  the 
body,  the  nerves  of  touch,  are  all  asleep— you  may  place  your  hand  upon  the 
brow  of  the  sleeping  man,  and  he  feels  it  not.  Yet,  unseen,  unheard,  without 
perceptible  motion,  or  the  slightest  jar  to  mar  the  rest  of  the  sleeper,  the  heart 
beats  on,  and  on,  and  on.  As  his  sleep  deepens,  the  heart  slackens  its  speed, 
that  his  rest  may  be  the  more  sound.  He  has  slept  for  eight  hours,  and  the 
time  approaches  for  his  awakening.  But  is  the  heart  weary— tha^,  heart  which 
has  toiled  through  the  long  and  sluggard  night  ?  No !  The  moment  the  waking 
sleeper  moves  his  arm,  the  heart  is  aware  that  a  motion  has  been  made,  that 
effort  and  exercise  are  about  to  begin.  The  nerves  are  all  arousing  to  action ; 
the  eyes  turn  in  their  sockets,  the  head  moves  upon  the  neck ;  the  sleeper  leaves 
his  couch,  and  the  legs  are  once  more  called  upon  to  bear  the  weight  of  the 
body.  Blood  is  the  food  of  the  eye,  the  food  of  the  ear,  of  the  foot,  the  hand, 
and  every  member  of  the  frame.  \Vhile  they  labour  they  must  be  fed — that  u 


THE    REASON    WHY.  259 


1  Awake  up,  my  glory ;  awake,  psaltery  and  harp :  I  myself  will  awake  early." — 
PSALM  LTII. 


the  condition  of  their  life,  the  source  of  their  strength.  The  heart,  therefore, 
so  far  from  seeking  rest,  is  all  fresh  and  vigorous  for  the  labours  of  the  day,  and 
proceeds  to  discharge  its  duty  so  willingly,  that  we  do  not  even  know  of  the 
movements  that  are  going  on  within  "us. 

Thus  we  have  seen  the  difference  between  the  voluntary  and  the  involuntary 
muscles,  and  we  have  perceived  the  goodness  of  our  Creator  in  not  entrusting 
to  our  keeping  the  controul  of  an  organ  so  vital  to  life,  as  the  heart. 

But  the  heart  is  not  the  only  organ  which  thus  works  unseen  and  unfelt. 
There  are  the  lungs  and  the  muscles  of  the  chest,  the  stomach,  and  other  parts 
occupying  the  abdomen,  together  with  all  those  muscular  filaments  which  enter 
into  the  structure  of  the  coats  and  valves  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  which  assist 
to  propel  the  blood  through  the  system.  All  these  are  at  work  at  every  moment 
of  man's  life;  and  yet,  so  perfect  is  this  complicated  machinery,  that  we  really 
do  not  know,  except  by  theory,  what  is  going  on  within  us. 

During  the  time  that  the  sleeper  has  been  at  rest,  the  stomach  has  been  at 
work  digesting  the  food  which  was  last  eaten.  Then  the  stomach  has  passed  the 
macerated  food  into  the  alimentary  canal,  the  liver  has  poured  out  its  secretion, 
and  produced  certain  changes  in  the  condition  of  the  dissolved  food :  and  the 
lacteals,  of  which  there  may  be  many  thousands,  perhaps  millions,  have  been 
busy  sucking  up  those  portions  of  the  food  which  they  knew  to  be  useful  to  the 
system,  whilst  they  have  rejected  all  those  useless  and  noxious  matters  upon 
which  the  liver,  like  an  officer  of  health,  had  set  his  mark,  as  unfitting  for  the 
public  use.  This  busy  life  has  gone  on  uninterruptedly ;  every  member  of  that 
body,  every  worker  in  that  wonderful  factory,  has  been  unremitting  in  his  duty, 
and  yet  the  owner,  the  master,  has  been  asleep,  and  wakes  up  finding  every 
bodily  want  supplied ! 

Notwithstanding  that  much  has  already  been  said  of  the  wonders  that 
pertain  to  the  eye,  it  has  not  yet  been  considered  as  the  seat  of  tears,  those 
mute  but  eloquent  utterers  of  the  sorrows  of  the  heart.  Beautiful  Tear! 
whether  lingering  upon  the  brink  of  the  eyelid,  or  darting  down  the  furrows  of 
the  care- worn  cheek— thou  art  sublime  in  thy  simplicity — great,  because  of  thy 
modesty— strong,  from  thy  very  weakness.  Offspring  of  sorrow !  who  will  not 
own  thy  claim  to  sympathy  ?  who  can  resist  thy  eloquence  ?  who  can  deny 
mercy  when  thou  pleadest  ? 

Every  tear  represents  some  in-dwelling  sorrow  preying  upon  the  mind  and 
destroying  its  peace.  The  tear  comes  forth  to  declare  the  inward  struggle,  and 
to  plead  a  truce  against  further  strife.  How  meet  that  the  eye  should  be  the 
seat  of  tears— where  they  cannot  occur  unobserved,  but,  blending  with  the 
beauty  of  the  eye  itself,  must  command  attention  and  sympathy  ! 

Whenever  we  behold  a  tear,  let  our  kindliest  sympathies  awake— let  it  have  a 
sacred  claim  upon  all  that  we  can  do  to  succour  and  comfort  under  affliction. 
What  rivers  of  tears  have  flown,  excited  by  the  cruel  and  perverse  ways  of  man  ! 
War  has  spread  its  carnage  and  desolation,  and  the  eyes  of  widows  and  orphans 
have  been  suffused  with  tears!  Intemperance  has  blighted  the  homes  o 
millions,  and  weeping  and  wailing  have  been  incessant !  A  thousand  other  evils 
\i  hich  we  may  conquer  have  given  birth  to  tears  enough  to  constitute  a  flood— 
.1  groat  tide  of  grief.  Suppose  we  prize  this  little  philosophy,  and  each  one 
determine  it-tver  to  excite  a  tear  in  anothe*:  Watching  the  eye  as  the  telegraph 


2GO  THE    REASON    WHY. 


"Who  is  as  the  wise  man?  and  who  knowcth  the  interpretation  of  a  thing  V  a 

man's  wisdom  maketh  his  face  to  shine,  and  the  boldness  of  his  face  shall 

be  changed." — ECCLESIASTES  vm. 

of  the  mind  within,  let  us  observe  it  with  anxious  :egard;  and  whether  we  are 
moved  to  complaint  by  the  existence  of  supposed  or  real  wrongs,  let  the 
Indication  of  the  coming  tear  be  held  as  a  sacred  truce  to  unkindlj  feeling,  and 
our  efforts  be  devoted  to  the  substitution  of  smiles  for  tears ! 

There  is  only  one  other  matter  to  which  we  think  it  necessary  to  allude,  before 
we  pass  to  the  concluding  section  of  our  work.  It  has  been  said  (162) ,  that  snow 
which  is  white,  keeps  the  earth  warm ;  that  white  as  a  colour  is  cool,  and  that 
black  absorbs  heat  (23)).  These  assertions  may  appear  to  be  contradictory,  and. 
taken  in  connection  with  the  fact  of  the  blackness  of  the  skin  of  negroes  in  hot 
climates,  may  at  a  first  glance  be  considered  unsatisfactory.  They  are,  however, 
perfectly  reconcileable,  and  that  too,  without  the  slightest  evasion  of  the  real 
bearing  of  the  asserted  facts.  White  snow  is  warm  on  account  of  its  texture, \\\\\c\\, 
being  woolly,  forms  a  layer  of  non-conducting  substance  ever  the  surface  ol  the 
earth,  and  keeps  in  its  warmth ;  white  clothing,  worn  as  a  garment  consisting  of 
a  thin  material,  is  cool,  because  the  white  colour  turns  back  the  rays  of  the  sun 
that  fall  upon  it.  Swansdown,  although  white,  being  a  non-conductor,  would  be 
warm,  because,  though  it  would  reflect  the  light  and  heat,  it  would  confine  and 
accumulate  the  heat  of  the  body.  The  black  skin  of  the  negro  is  a  living  texture, 
and  is  not  subject  to  the  same  laws  that  govern  dead  matter.  The  skin  of  the 
negro  is  largely  provided  with  cells  which  secrete  a  fatty  matter  that  acts  as  a 
aon-conductor  of  the  external  heat,  and  also  a  much  larger  number  of  perspira- 
tory glands  than  exist  in  the  skins  of  Europeans.  The  perspiration  cools  the 
blood,  and  carries  off  the  internal  heat,  while  the  oily  matter  gives  a  shining 
surface  to  the  skin,  and  reflects  the  heat,  to  which  the  fatty  matter  presents 
itself  as  a  non -conductor.  We  see,  therefore,  that  there  are  two  express  provi- 
sions for  the  cooling  of  the  negroes'  skin,  independent  of  the  colour.  The  skin  of 
the  Esquimaux  who  inhabits  a  cold  country  is  white,  though  it  might  be  supposed 
that  a  black  skin  would  best  conduce  to  the  warmth  of  his  body.  But  tho 
Esquimaux  has,  underneath  his  skin,  a  thick  coating  of  fat,  by  which  the 
internal  heat  of  the  body  is  prevented  from  escaping. 

This  resume  of  the  subjects  embodied  in  the  form  of  question  and  answer  iu 
the  previous  pages,  will  serve  to  impress  the  more  important  truths  upon  the 
mind  of  the  reader,  while  it  has  enabled  us  to  fill  up  many  omissions  necessi- 
tated by  the  arbitrary  form  of  catechetical  composition. 


THE   KEASON    WHY.  261 

"Ask  now  the  beasts,  and  they  shall  teach  thee;  and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and 
they  shall  tell  thee."— JOB  xn. 


CHAPTER    LII. 

1029.  Will)  are  there  so  many  bodily  forms  in  the  animal 
creation  ? 

Because  the  various  creatures  which  God  has  created  have 
different  modes  of  life,  and  the  forms  of  their  hodies  will  be  found 
to  present  a  perfect  adaptation  to  the  lives  allotted  to  them. 

Because,  also,  the  beauty  of  creation  depends  upon  the  variety  of 
objects  of  which  it  consists.  And  the  greatness  of  the  Creator's 
power  is  shown  by  the  diversity  of  ends  accomplished  by  different 
means. 

1030.  Why  are  birds  covered  with  feathers  ? 

Because  they  require  a  high  degree  of  warmth,  on  account  of  the 
activity  of  their  muscles ;  but  in  providing  that  warmth  it  was 
necessary  that  their  coats  should  be  of  the  lightest  material,  so  as 
not  to  impair  their  powers  of  flight;  and  feathers  combine  the 
highest  warming  power,  with  the  least  amount  of  weight. 

1031.  Why  have  ostriches  small  ivings  ? 

Because,  having  long  legs,  they  do  not  require  their  wings  for 
flight ;  they  are  merely  used  to  steady  their  bodies  while  running. 

1032.  Why  are  ostrich  feathers  soft  and  downy  ? 

Because,  as  the  feathers  are  not  employed  for  flight,  the  strength 
of  the  feather  as  constructed  for  Jly ing  is  unnecessary,  and  the 
feathers  therefore  consist  chiefly  of  a  soft  down. 

1033.  Why  have  water-birds  feathers  of  a   close   and 
smooth  texture  ? 

Because  such  feathers  keep  the  body  of  the  bird  warm  and  drv, 
by  repelling  the  water  from  their  surface.  A  bird  could  scarcely 
move  through  the  water,  with  the  downy  feathers  of  the  ostrich, 
because  of  the  amount  of  water  the  down  would  absorb. 

1034.  Why  is  man  born  without  a  covering  ? 

Because  man  is  the  only  animal  that  can  clothe  itself.    As  in 


26'2  THE    REASON   WHY. 


'  "Who  teacheth  us  more  than  the  beasts  of  the  earth,  and  maketh  us  wiser  tfcan 
the  fowls  of  heaven  ?"— JOB  xxxv. 


the  various  pursuits  of  life  he  wanders  to  every  part  of  the  globe, 
he  can  adapt  himself  to  all  climates  and  to  any  season. 

1035.  Why  do  the  furs  of  animals  become  thicker  in  the 
winter  than  in  the  summer  ? 

Because  the  creator  has  thus  provided  for  the  preservation  of 
the  warmth  of  the  animals  during  the  cold  months  of  winter. 

1036.  Why  does  a  Hack  down  grow  under  the  feathers  of 
birds  as  winter  approaches  ? 

Because  the  down  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  and  black  the 
warmest  colour.  It  is  therefore  best  adapted  to  keep  in  their 
bodily  warmth  during  the  cold  of  winter. 

1037.  Wrhy  has  man  no  external  appendage  to  his  mouth  ? 

Because  his  hands  serve  all  the  purposes  of  gathering  food,  and 
conveying  it  to  the  mouth.  Man's  mouth  is  simply  an  opening; 
in  other  animals  it  is  &  projection. 

1038.  Why  have  dogs,  and  other  carnivorous  animals,  long 
pointed  teeth,  projecting  above  the  rest  ? 

Because  as  they  have  not  hands  to  seize  and  controul  their  food, 
the  projecting  teeth  enable  them  to  snap  and  hold  the  objects 
which  they  pursue  for  food. 

1039.  Why  is  the  under  jaw  of  the  hog,   shorter   and 
smaller  than  the  upper  one  ? 

Because  the  animal  pierces  the  ground  with  its  long  snout,  and 
then  the  small  under  jaw  works  freely  in  the  furrow  that  has  been 
opened,  in  quest  of  food. 

1010.  Why  have  lirds  hard  leaks  ? 

Because,  having  no  teeth,  the  beak  enables  them  to  seize,  hold, 
and  divide  their  food. 

1011.  Why  are   the  beaks  of  birds  generally   long  and 
sharp  ? 

Because  the  greater  number  of  birds  live  by  picking  up  small 


THE   SEASON   WHY. 


263 


•As  the  fishes  that  are  taken  in  an  evil  net,  and  as  the  birds  that  are  caught  in 
the  snare ;  so  are  the  sons  of  men  snared  in  an  evil  time,  when  it  falleth 
suddenly  upon  them."— ECCLESIASTES  ix. 

objects,  such  as  worms,  insects,  seeds,  &c.  The  sharp  beak, 
therefore,  serves  as  a  fine  pincers,  enabling  them  to  take  hold  of 
their  food  conveniently. 

1042.  Why  have  snipes  and  woodcocks  long  tapering  bills  ? 
Because  they  live  upon  worms  which  they  find  in  the  soft  mud  of 

streams  and  marshy  places ;  their  long  bills,  therefore,  enable  them 
to  dig  down  into  the  mud  after  their  prey. 

1043.  Why  have  woodcocks,  snipes,  §c.,  nerves  running 
down  to  the  extremities  of  their  bills  ? 

Because,  as  they  dig  for  their  prey  in  the  soft  sand  and  mud, 
they  cannot  see  the  worms  upon  which  they  live.  Nerves  are, 
therefore,  distributed  to  the  very  point  of  their  bills  (where,  in  other 
birds,  nerves  are  entirely  absent)  to  enable  them  to  prehend  their 
food. 


Fig.  67.— SPOONBILL. 

1044.   Why  have  ducks  and  geese  square-pointed  bills  ? 

Because  they  not  only  feed  by  dabbling  in  soft  and  muddy  soil, 
but  they  consume  a  considerable  quantity  of  green  food,  and  theif 
square  bills  enable  them  to  crop  off  the  blades  of  grass. 


264  THE    EEASON    WHY. 


"  Let  the  heaven  and  earth  praise  him,  the  seas,  and  everything  that  moveth 
therein." — PSALM  LXIX. 


1045.  Why  Jias  the  spoon-bill  a  long  expanded  bill,  lined 
internally  with  sharp  muscular  points  ? 

Because  the  bird  lives  by  suction,  dipping  its  broad  bill  in  search 
of  acquatic  worms,  mollusks,  insects  and  the  roots  of  weeds.  The 
bill  form?  a  natural  spoon,  and  the  muscular  points  enable  the 
bird  to  filter  the  mud,  and  to  retain  the  nourishment  which  it  finds. 

1016.  Why  has  the  spoon-bill  long  legs? 

Because  it  wades  in  marshy  places  to  find  its  food.  Its  legs 
are  therefore  long,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  its  body  out  of  the 
water,  and  above  the  smaller  acquatic  plants,  while  it  searches  for 
its  prey. 

1017.  Why  have  the  parrots,  fyc.,  crooked  and  hard  bills  ? 

Because  they  live  upon  nuts,  the  stones  of  fruit,  and  hard  seeds. 
The  shape  of  the  bill,  therefore,  enables  them  to  hold  the  nut  or 
seed  firmly,  and  the  sharp  point  enables  them  to  split  or  remove 
the  husks. 

1048.  Why  can  a  parrot  move  its  upper  as  well  as  its 
lower  lill? 

Because  by  that  means  it  is  enabled  to  bring  the  nut  or  seed 
nearer  the  fulcrum,  or  joint  of  the  jaw.  It,  therefore,  acquires 
greater  power,  just  as  with  a  pair  of  nut-crackers  we  obtain 
increased  power  by  setting  the  nut  near  to  the  joint. 

1049.  Why  have  animals  with  long  necks  large  throats  ? 
Animals  that  graze,  or  feed  from  the  ground,  generally  have  a 

more  powerful  muscular  formation  of  the  throat  than  those  which 
feed  in  other  positions,  because  a  greater  effort  is  required  to  force 
the  food  upward,  that  would  be  needed  to  convey  it  down. 

1050.  Why  are  the  bones  of  birds  hollow  ? 

Because  they  are  thereby  rendered  lighter,  and  do  not  interfere 
with  the  flight  of  the  bird  as  they  would  do  if  they  were  solid. 
Greater  strength  is  also  obtained  by  the  cylindrical  form  of  the 
"botw,  and  a  larger  surface  afforded  for  the  attachment  of  powerful 
m  uscles. 


THE    REASON    WHY.  265 


"And  my  hand  hath  found,  as  a  nest,  the  riches  of  the  people;  and  as  one 

gathereth  eggs  that  are  left,  have  [  gathered  all  the  earth ;  and  there  was  none 

that  moved  the  wing:,  or  opened  the  mouth,  or  peeped."— Is  AIA.H  x. 

1051.    Why  do  all  bints  lay  eggs  ? 

Because,  to  bear  their  young  in  any  other  manner,  would 
encumber  the  body,  and  materially  interfere  with  their  powers  of 
flight. 

As  soon  as  an  egg  becomes  large  and  heavy  enough  to  be 
cumbersome  to  the  bird,  it  is  removed  from  the  body.  A  shell, 
impervious  to  air,  protects  the  germ  of  life  within,  until  from  two  to 
twenty  eggs  have  accumulated,  and  then,  although  laid  at  different 
intervals,  their  incubation  commences  together,  and  the  young 
birds  are  hatched  at  the  same  time. 


CHAPTER    LIU. 

1052.   Why  have  birds  with  long  legs  short  tails  ? 

Because  the  tails  of  birds  are  used  to  guide  them  through  the 
air,  by  a  kind  of  steerage.  When  birds  with  long  legs  take  to 
flight,  they  throw  their  legs  behind,  and  they  then  serve  the  same 
purpose  as  a  tail. 


Fig.  68.— PEBCH. 
1053.   Why  have  fishes  fins  ? 

The  fins  of  fishes  are  to  them,  what  wings  and  tails  are  to  birds, 
enabling  them  to  rise  in  the  fluid  in  which  they  live  by  the  reaction 
of  the  motions  of  the  fins  upon  its  substance. 
12' 


266  THE   SEASON    WHY. 


"  Speak  to  the  earth,  and  it  shall  teach  thee ;  and  the  fishes  of  the  sea  shall 

declare  unto  thee.  Who  knoweth  not  in  all  these  that  the  hand  of  the  Lord  hath 

wrought  this."— JOB  xn. 

1054.  Why  are  the  fins  of  fishes  proportionately  so  much 
smaller  than  the  wings  of  birds? 

Because  there  is  less  difference  between  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  body  of  a  fish,  and  the  water  in  which  it  moves,  than  between 
the  body  of  a  bird,  and  the  air  on  which  it  flies.  The  fish,  therefore 
does  not  require  such  an  expanded  surface  to  elevate  or  guide  it. 

1055.  Why  have  fishes  scales  ? 

Because  scales,  while  they  afford  protection  to  the  bodies  of  fish, 
are  conveniently  adapted  to  their  motions ;  and  as  the  scales  present 
no  surface  to  obstruct  their  passage  throuyh  the  water,  as  hair  or 
feathers  would  do,  they  evidently  form  the  best  covering  for  the 
acquatic  animal. 

1056.  Why  do  fishes  float  in  streams  (when  they  are  not 
swimming)  with  their  heads  towards  the  stream  ? 

Because  they  breathe  by  the  transmission  of  water  over  the 
surface  of  their  gills,  the  water  entering  at  the  mouth,  and  passing 
over  the  gills  behind.  When,  therefore,  they  lie  motionless  with 
their  heads  to  the  stream,  they  are  in  that  position  which  naturally 
assists  their  breathing  process. 

1057.  Why  have  fishes  air-bladders  ? 

Because,  as  the  density  of  water  varies  greatly  at  different  depths, 
the  enlargement  or  contraction  of  the  bladder  regulates  the  relation 
of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  body  of  the  fish  to  that  of  the  water 
in  which  it  moves. 

1058.  Why  have  whales  a  very  large  development  of  oily 
matter  about  their  heads  ? 

Because  their  heads  are  thereby  rendered  the  lighter  part  of  their 
bodies,  and  a  very  slight  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  animal  will 
bring  its  head  to  the  surface  to  breathe  air,  which  it  constantly 
requires. 

1059.  Why  have  birds  that  swim  upon  water  web-feet  ? 

Because  the  spreading  out  of  the  toes  of  the  bird  brings  the 
membrane  between  the  toes  into  the  form  of  a  fin,  or  water -winy, 


THE   BEASON   WHY.  267 


"  And  Jesus  saith  unto  him,  The  foxes  have  holes,  and  the  birds  of  the  air  have 
nests ;  but  the  sou  of  man  hath  not  where  to  lay  his  head."— MATTHEW  xm. 


by    striking  which  against    the    water,   the  bird  propels  itself 
along. 

1060.   Why  have  birds  that  swim  and  dive  short  legs  ? 

Because  long  legs  would  greatly  impede  their  motions  in  the 
water,  by  becoming  repeatedly  entangled  in  the  weeds,  and  by 
striking  against  the  bottom.  Waders,  however,  require  long  legs 
because  they  have  to  move  about  through  the  tall  vegetation  of 
marshy  borders. 


Fig.  69.— STILT-PLOVEB  AND  DUCK. 

1001.  Why  have  the  feet  of  the  her  on,  cormorant,  fyc.,  deep 
rough  notches  upon  their  under  surface  ? 

Because,  as  those  birds  live  by  catching  fish,  they  are  enabled  by 
the  notches  in  their  feet,  to  hold  the  slippery  creatures  upon  which 
they  feed. 

1062,  Why  have  otters,  seals,  $c.,  web-feet  ? 

Because,  while  the  feet  enable  them  to  walk  upon  the  land,  they 
are  equally  effective  in  their  action  upon  the  water,  and  hence  they 
are  adapted  to  the  amphibious  nature  of  the  animals  to  which  they 
belong. 

1063.  Why  do  the  external  ears  of  animals  of  prey,  such 
as  cats,  tigers, foxes,  wolves,  hyenis,  tyc.,  bend  forward  ? 

Because  they  collect  the  sounds  that  occur  in  the  direction  of  the 


268  THE    BEASON    WHY. 


'  Doth  the  hawk  fly  by  thy  wisdom,  and  stretch  her  wings  toward  the  south  ? 
"  Doth  the  eagle  mount  up  at  thy  command,  and  make  her  aest  on  high  ? 


pursuit,  and  enable  the  animal  to  track  its  prey    with  greater 
certainty. 


*.   Why  do  the  ears  of  animals  of  flight,  such  as  hares, 
rabbits,  deer,  fyc.,  turn  backward  ? 

Because  they  thereby  catch  the  sounds  that  give  them  warning 
of  the  approach  of  danger. 

1065.  Why  has  the  stomach  of  the   camel  a  number  of 
distinct  lags,  like  so  many  separate  stomachs  ? 

Because  water  is  stored  up  in  the  seoarate  chambers  of  the 
stomach,  apart  from  the  solid  aliment,  so  that  the  animal  can  feed, 
without  consuming  all  its  drink.  It  is  thereby  able  to  retain 
water  to  satisfy  its  thirst  while  travelling  across  hot  deserts, 
where  no  water  could  be  obtained. 

1066.  Why  do  woodpeckers  "  tap"  at  old  trees  ? 

Because  by  boring  through  the  decayed  wood,  with  the  sharp 
and  hard  bills  with  which  they  are  provided,  they  get  at  the  haunts 
of  the  insects  upon  which  they  feed. 

1067.  Why  are  woodpeckers'   tongues  about  three  times 
longer  than  their  bills  ? 

Because,  if  their  bills  were  long,  they  would  not  bore  the  trees  so 
efficiently  ;  and  when  the  trees  are  bored,  and  the  insects  alarmed, 
they  endeavour  to  retreat  into  the  hollows  of  the  wood  ;  but  the 
long  thin  tongue  of  the  woodpecker  fixes  them  on  its  sharp  horny 
point,  and  draws  them  into  the  mouth  of  the  bird. 

1068.  Why  have  the  Indian   hogs  large   horns  growing 
from  their  nostrils  and  turning  lack  towards  their  eyes  ? 

Because  the  horns  serve  as  a  defence  to  the  eyes  while  the 
animal  forces  its  way  through  the  thick  underwood  in  which  it 
lives. 

1069.  Why  have  calves  and  Ismbs,   and  the   young  of 
horned  cattle  generally,  no  horns  while  they  are  young  ? 

Because  the  presence  of  horns  would  interfere  with  the  suckling 


THIS   SEASON   WHY.  269 


"  She  dwelleth  and  abideth  on  the  rock,  upon  the  crag  of  the  rock,  and  the 

strong  place. 

•From  thence  she  seeketh  the  prey,  and  her  eyes  behold  afar  off.    Her  young 
ones  also  suck  up  blood:  and  where  the  slain  are,  there  is  she."— JOB  xxxix. 

of  the  young  animal.     When,  however,  it  is  able  to  feed  itself  by 
browsing,  then  the  horns  begin  to  grow. 

1070.  Why  have  infants  no  teeth  ? 

Because  the  presence  of  teeth  would  interfere  with  their  suckling, 
while  the  teeth  would  be  of  no  service,  until  the  child  could  take 
food  requiring  mastication. 

1071.  Why  cannot  flesh-eating  animals   live  upon   vege- 
tables ? 

Because  the  gastric  juice  of  a  flesh-eating  animal,  being  adapted 
to  the  duty  which  it  has  to  perform,  will  not  dissolve  vegetable 
matter. 

1072.  Why  have  birds  gizzards  ? 

Because,  having  no  teeth,  the  tough  and  tibrous  gizzards  are 
employed  to  grind  the  food  preparatory  to  digestion. 

1073.  Why  are  small  particles  of  sand,  stone,  fyc.,  found 
in  the  gizzards  of  birds  ? 

Because,  by  the  presence  of  those  rough  particles,  which  become 
embedded  in  the  substance  of  the  gizzard,  the  food  of  the  bird  is 
more  effectively  ground. 

"When  our  fowls  are  abundantly  supplied  with  meat,  they  soon  fill  their  craw, 
but  it  does  not  immediately  pass  thence  into  the  gizzard  ;  it  always  enters  in 
small  quantities,  in  proportion  to  the  progress  of  trituration,  in  like  manner,  as 
in  a  mill,  a  receiver  is  fixed  above  the  two  large  stones  which  serve  for  grinding 
the  corn,  which  receiver,  although  the  corn  be  put  into  it  by  bushels,  allows 
the  grain  to  dribble  only  in  small  quantities  into  the  central  hole  in  the  upper 
mill-stone. — Paley. 

CHAPTER    LIV. 

1074.  Why  has  the  mole  hard  and  flat  feet,  armed  with 
sharp  nails? 

Because  the  animal  is  thereby  enabled  to  burrow  in  the  earth,  in 
search  for  worms.  Its  feet  are  so  many  shovels. 

1075.  Why    is  the   mole's  far   exceedingly  glossy   and 
smooth  ? 

Because  its  smoothness  enables  it  to  work  under  ground  without 


270 


THE   BEASON  WHY. 


I  know  all  the  fowls  of  the  mountains,  and  the  wild  beasts  are  mine."— 
PSALM  L. 


the  soil  sticking  to  its  coat,  by  which  its  progress  would  be  impeded. 
From  soils  of  all  kinds,  the  little  worker  emerges  shining  and  clean. 
"What  I  have  always  most  admired  in  the  mole  is  its  eyes.  This  animal 
occasionally  visiting  the  surface,  and  wanting,  for  its  safety  and  direction,  to  bo 
informed  when  it  does  so,  or  when  it  approaches  it,  a  perception  of  light  was 
necessary.  I  do  not  know  that  the  clearness  of  sight  depends  at  all  upon  the 
size  of  the  organ.  What  is  gained  by  the  largeness  or  prominence  of  the  globe 
of  the  eye,  is  width  in  the  field  of  vision.  Such  a  capacity  would  be  of  no  use  to 
an  animal  which  was  to  seek  its  food  in  the  dark.  The  mole  did  not  want  to 
look  about  it ;  nor  would  a  large  advanced  eye  have  been  easi'y  defended  from 
the  annoyance  to  which  the  life  of  the  animal  must  cjnstantly  expose  it.  How 
indeed  was  the  mole,  working  its  way  under  ground,  to  guard  its  eyes  at  all? 
In  order  to  meet  this  difficulty,  the  eyes  are  made  scarcely  larger  than  the  head 
of  a  corking-pin ;  and  these  minute  globules  are  sunk  so  deeply  in  the  skull,  and 
lie  so  sheltered  within  the  velvet  of  its  covering,  as  that  any  contraction  of  what 
may  be  called  the  eye-brows,  not  only  closes  up  the  apertures  which  lead  to  the 
eyes,  but  presents  a  cushion,  as  it  were,  to  any  sharp  or  protruding  substance 
which  might  push  against  them.  This  aperture,  even  in  its  ordinary  state,  is 
\ike  a  pin-hole  in  a  piece  of  velvet,  scarcely  pervious  to  loose  particles  of  ear  h. 
-Paley. 


Fig.  70.— ELEPHANTS  DBUfKING. 


1076.   Wliy  lias  the  elephant  a  short  unbending  neck  ? 

Because  the  elephant's  head  is  so  heavy,  that  it  could  not  have 
been  supported  at  the  end  of  a  long  neck  (or  lever),  without  a 
provision  of  immense  muscular  power. 


THE    REASON    WHY.  271 

"Be  not  afraid,  ye  beasts  of  the  field:  for  the  pastures  of  the  wilderness  de 

spring,  for  the  tree  beareth  her  fruit,  the  fig-tree  and  the  vine  do  yield 

their  strength."— JOEL  n. 


1077.  Why  has  the  elephant  a  trunk  ? 

The  trunk  of  an  elephant  serves  as  a  substitute  for  a  neck, 
enabling  the  animal  to  crop  the  branches  of  trees,  or  to  raise  water 
from  the  stream. 

1078.  Why  do  the  hind  legs  of  elephants  bend  forward? 
Because  the  weight  of  the  animal  is  so  great,  that  when  it  lay 

down  it  would  rise  with  great  difficulty,  if  its  legs  bent  outward, 
as  do  the  legs  of  other  animals.  Being  bent  under  the  body,  they 
have  a  greater  power  of  pushing  directly  upward,  when  the 
powerful  muscles  of  the  thighs  straighten  them. 

According  to  Cuvier,  the  number  of  muscles,  in  an  elephant's  trunk,  amounts 
to  forty  thousand,  all  of  which  are  under  the  will,  and  it  is  to  these  that  the 
proboscis  of  this  animal  owes  its  flexibility.  It  can  be  protruded  or  contracted 
at  pleasure,  raised  up  or  turned  to  either  side,  coiled  round  on  itself  or  twined 
around  any  object.  With  this  instrument  the  elephant  collects  the  herbage  on 
which  he  feeds  and  puts  it  into  his  mouth ;  with  this  he  strips  the  trees  of  their 
branches,  or  grasps  his  enemy  and  dashes  him  to  the  ground.  But  this  admi- 
rable organ  is  not  only  adapted  for  seizing  or  holding  substances  of  magnitude ; 
it  is  also  capable  of  plucking  a  single  leaf,  or  of  picking  up  a  straw  from  the 
floor.  The  orifices  of  the  canals  of  the  extremity  are  encircled  by  a  projecting 
margin,  produced  anteriorly  into  a  finger-like  process  endowed  with  a  high 
degree  of  sensibility  and  exceedingly  flexible.  It  is  at  once  a  finger  for  grasping 
and  a  feeler:  the  division  between  the  two  nasal  orifices  or  their  elevated  sides 
serves  as  a  point  against  which  to  press  ;  and  thus  it  can  pick  up  or  hold  a  small 
coin,  a  bit  of  biscuit,  or  any  trifling  thing  with  the  greatest  ease.— Knight's 
Animal  Kingdom. 

1079.  Why  have  bats  hooked  claws  in  their  wings  ? 
Because  bats  are  almost  destitute  of  legs  and  feet ;  at  least  those 

organs  are  included  in  their  wings.  If  they  alight  upon  the  ground, 
they  have  great  difficulty  in  again  taking  to  the  wing,  as  they 
cannot  run  or  spring  to  bring  their  wings  in  action  upon  the  air. 
At  the  angle  of  each  wing  there  is  placed,  therefore,  a  bony  hook, 
by  which  the  bat  attaches  itself  to  the  sides  of  rocks,  caves,  and 
buildings,  laying  hold  of  crevices,  joinings,  chinks,  &c. ;  and  when 
it  takes  its  flight,  it  unhooks  itself,  and  its  wings  are  at  once  free 
to  strike  the  air. 

1080.  Why  does  the  bat  fly  by  night  ? 

Because  it  lives  chiefly  upon  moths,  which  are  night-flying 
insects. 


272  THE    SEASON   WHY. 


1  So  are  the  paths  of  all  that  forget  God ;  and  the  hypocrite's  hope  shall  perish ; 

Whose  hope  shall  be  cut  off,  and  whose  trust  shall  be  a  spider's 

web."— JOB  vni. 


1081.   Why  does  the  bat  sleep  during  the  winter  ? 

Because,  as  the  winter  approaches,  the  moths  and  flying  insects 
upon  which  it  feeds,  disappear.  If,  therefore,  it  did  not  sleep 
through  the  winter  it  must  have  starved. 


Fig.  71.— BAT  WITH  HOOKED  WINGS. 

1082.   Why  has  the  spider  the  power  of  spinning  a  web  ? 

Because,  as  it  lives  upon  flies,  but  is  deficient  of  the  power  of 
flying  in  pursuit  of  them,  it  has  been  endowed  with  an  instinct  to 
spread  a  snare  to  entrap  them,  and  with  the  most  wonderful 
machinery  to  give  that  instinct  effect. 

There  are  few  things  better  suited  to  remove  the  disgust  into  which  young 
people  are  betrayed  on  the  view  of  some  natural  objects,  than  this  of  the  spider. 
They  will  find  that  the  most  despised  creature  may  become  a  subject  of  admira- 
tion, and  be  selected  by  the  naturalist  to  exhibit  the  marvellous  works  of  the 
creation.  The  terms  given  to  these  insects,  lead  us  to  expect  interesting  par- 
ticulars concerning  them,  since  they  have  been  divided  into  vagrants,  hunters, 
swimmers,  and  water  spiders,  sedentary,  and  mason-spiders ;  thus  evincing  a 
variety  in  their  condition,  activity,  and  mode  of  life ;  and  we  cannot  be  sur- 
prised to  find  them  varying  in  the  performance  of  their  vital  functions  (as,  for 
example,  in  their  mode  of  breathing),  as  well  as  in  their  extremities  and  instru- 
ments. Of  these  instruments  the  most  striking  is  the  apparatus  for  spinning 
and  weaving,  by  which  they  riot  only  fabricate  webs  to  entangle  their  prey,  but 
form  cells  for  their  residence  and  concealment ;  sometimes  living  in  the 
ground,  sometimes  under  water,  yet  breathing  the  atmosphere.  Corresponding 
with  their  very  singular  organisation  are  their  instincts.  We  are  familiar  with 
the  watchfulness  and  voracity  of  some  spiders,  when  their  prey  is  indicated  by 
the  vibration  of  the  cords  of  their  net- work.  Others  have  the  eye  and  dis- 
position of  the  lynx  or  tiger,  and  after  couching  in  concealment,  leap  upon 
their  victims.  Some  conceal  themselves  under  a  silken  hood  or  tube,  six  eyes 
only  projecting.  Some  bore  a  hole  in  the  earth,  and  line  it  as  finely  as  if  it 
were  done  with  the  trowel  and  mortar,  and  then  hang  it  with  delicate  curtains. 
A  very  extraordinary  degree  of  contrivance  is  exhibited  in  the  trap-door  spider. 
This  door,  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  has  a  frame  and  hinge  on  the  mouth 
of  the  cell,  and  is  so  provided  that  the  claw  of  the  spider  can  lay  hold  of  it,  and 


THE    REASON    WHY. 


273 


1  The  spider  taketh  hold  with  her  hands,  and  is  in  king's  palaces." — 
PROVERBS  xxx. 


whether  she  enters  or  goes  out,  says  Mr.  Kirby,  the  door  shuts  of  itself.  But 
the  water-spider  has  a  domicile  more  curious  still :  it  is  under  water,  with  an 
opening  at  the  lower  part  for  her  exit  and  entrance ;  and  although  this  cell  ba 
under  water,  it  contains  air  like  a  diving-bell,  so  that  the  spider  breathes  the 
atmosphere.  The  air  is  renewed  in  the  cell  in  a  manner  not  easily  explained. 
The  spider  comes  to  the  surface ;  a  bubble  of  air  is  attracted  to  its  body ;  with 
this  air  she  descends,  and  gets  under  her  cell,  when  the  air  is  disengaged  and 
rises  into  the  cell ;  and  thus,  though  under  water,  she  lives  in  the  air.  There 
must  be  some  peculiar  property  of  the  surface  of  this  creature  by  which  she  can 
move  in  the  water  surrounded  with  an  atmosphere,  and  live  under  the  water 
breathing  the  air. 


Fig.  72.— WEB  O*  THE  GEOMETRICAL  SPIDER. 


The  chief  instrument  by  which  the  spider  performs  these  wonders  is  the 
spinning  apparatus.  The  matter  from  which  the  threads  are  spun  is  the  liquid 
contained  in  cells ;  the  ducts  from  these  cells  open  upon  little  projecting  teats, 
and  the  atmosphere  has  so  immediate  an  effect  upon  this  liquid,  that  upon 
exposure  to  it  the  secretion  becomes  a  tough  and  strong  thread.  Twenty- four 
of  these  fine  strands  form  together  a  thread  of  the  thickness  of  that  of  the 
silk-worm.  We  are  assured  that  there  are  three  different  sorts  of  material  thus 
produced,  which  are  indeed  required  for  the  various  purposes  to  which  the 

12* 


274  THE   11EASON   WHY. 


1  For  every  beast  of  the  forest  is  mine,  and  the  cattle  upon  a  thousand  hills."— 

L. 


are  applied— as,  for  example,  to  mix  up  with  the  earth  to  form  the  cells ;  to  line 
these  cells  as  with  fine  cotton ;  to  make  light  and  floating  threads  by  which  they 
may  be  conveyed  through  the  air,  as  well  as  those  meshes  which  are  so 
geometrically  and  correctly  formed  to  entrap  their  prey.— Note  by  Lord 
Brougliam  to  Paley's  Natural  Theology. 

1083.  Why  have  many  insects  a  great  number  of  eyes  ? 
Because  the  orb  of  the  eye  is  fixed ;  there  is  therefore  placed  over 

the  eye  a  multiple-lens,  which  conducts  light  to  the  eye  from  every 
direction;  so  that  the  insect  can  see  with  a  fixed  eye  as  readily  as 
it  could  have  done  with  a  moveable  one.  As  many  as  fourteen 
hundred  eyes,  or  inlets  of  light,  have  been  counted  in  the  head  of  a 
drone-bee.  The  spider  has  eight  eyes,  mounted  upon  different  parts 
of  the  head  j  two  in  front,  two  in  the  top  of  the  head,  and  two  on 
each  side. 

1084.  Why  have  birds  of  prey  no  gizzards  ? 

Because  their  food   does  not  require  to   be  ground  prior  to 
digestion,  as  does  the  food  of  grain-eating  birds. 

1085.  Why  have  earth  worms  no  feet  ? 

Because  the  undulatory  motion  of  their  muscles  serves  them  for 
all  the  purposes  of  progression  needed  by  their  mode  of  life. 

1086.  Why     have     mussels     strong     tendinous     threads 
proceeding  from  their  shells  ? 

Because  as  they  live  in  places  that  are  beaten  by  the  surf  of  the 
sea,  they  moor  their  shells  by  those  threads  to  rocks  and  timbers. 

1087.  Why  have  cockles  stiff  muscular  tongues? 
Because,  having  no  threads  to  moor  themselves,  as  the  mussels 

have,  they  dig  out  with  their  tongues  a  shelter  for  themselves  in 
the  sand. 

1088.  Why  do  oxen,  sheep,  deer,  fyc.,  ruminate  ? 
Becauss  they  have  no  front  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  place  of 

which  is  occupied  by  a  hardened  gum.  The  first  process,  therefore, 
consists  simply  of  cropping  their  food,  which  is  passed  into  the 
paunch,  to  be  brought  up  again  and  ground  by  the  back  teetk 
wlien  the  cropping  process  is  over. 

Because,  in  a  wild  state,  they  are  constantly  exposed  to  the 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  -</5 


'  A  righteous  na^n  regardeth  the  life  of  his  bea*  t :  but  the  tender  mercic     -  <fhe 
wicked  are  cruel."— PBOVEKBS  xn. 


attacks  of  carnivorous  beasts,  and  as  the  mastication  of  the  «arge 
amount  of  vegetable  food  required  for  their  sustenance  would  «ike  a 
considerable  time,  they  are  provided  with  stomachs,  by  whio*  they 
are  enabled  to  fill  their  paunches  quickly,  and  then,  retirii^  to  a 
place  of  safety,  they  bring  their  food  up  again,  and  chevr  it  at 
leisure. 

1089.  Why  can  ruminating  animals  recover  the  food  from 
their  paunches  ? 

Because  they  have  a  voluntary  power  over  the  muscles  of  the 
throat,  by  which  they  can  bring  up  the  food  at  will. 

1090.  Why  can   they   keep  the   unchewed  food  in   the 
paunch,  from  the  "cud"  they  have  chewed  for  nourishment  ? 

Because  their  stomachs  are  divided  into  three  chambers :  1,  the 
paunch,  where  the  unchewed  food  is  stored ;  2,  the  reticulum, 
where  portions  of  the  food  are  received  from  the  paunch,  and 
moistened  and  rolled  into  a  "  cud,"  to  be  sent  up  and  chewed ;  and 
3,  the  psalterium,  which  receives  the  masticated  food,  and  con- 
tinues the  process  of  digestion. 

In  quadrupeds  the  deficiency  of  teeth  is  usually  compensated  by  the  faculty 
of  rumination.  The  sheep,  deer,  and  ox  tribe,  are  without  fore-teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw.  These  ruminate.  The  horse  and  ass  are  furnished  with  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw,  and  do'  not  ruminate.  In  the  former  class,  the  grass  and  hay  descend 
into  the  stomachs  nearly  in  the  state  in  which  they  are  cropped  from  the 
pasture,  or  gathered  from  the  bundle.  In  the  stomach,  they  are  softened  by 
the  gastric  juice,  which  in  these  animals  is  unusually  copious.  Ihus  softened 
and  rendered  tender,  they  are  returned  a  second  time  to  the  action  of  the 
mouth,  where  the  grinding  teeth  complete  at  their  leisure  the  trituration  which 
is  necessary ;  but  which  was  before  left  imperfect.  I  say,  the  trituration  which 
is  necessary ;  for  it  appears  from  experiments,  that  the  gastric  fluid  of  sheep,  for 
example,  has  no  effect  in  digesting  plants,  unless  they  have  been  previously 
masticated ;  that  it  only  produces  a  slight  maceration,  nearly  as  common  water 
would  do  in  a  like  degree  of  heat ;  but  that  when  once  vegetables  are  reduced 
to  pieces  by  mastication,  the  fluid  then  exerts  upon  them  its  specific  operation. 
Its  first  effect  is  to  softon  them,  and  to  destroy  their  natural  consistency ;  it 
then  goes  on  to  dissolve  them,  not  sparing  even  the  toughest  parts,  such  as  the 
nerves  of  the  leaves.  I  think  it  very  probable,  that  the  gratification  also  of  the 
animal  is  renewed  and  prolonged  by  this  faculty.  Sheep,  deer,  and  oxen,  appear 
to  be  in  a  state  of  enjoyment  whilst  they  are  chewing  the  cud.  It  is  then, 
perhaps,  tha;  ;"iey  best  relish  their  food.— Paley. 


276 


THE   SEASON    WHY. 


'I  am  like  a  pelican  of  the  wilderness :  I  am  like  an  owl  of  the  desert.   I  watch, 
and  am  as  a  sparrow  alone  upon  the  house  top." — PSAXM  en. 


CHAPTER  LV. 

1091.  Why  do  quadrupeds  that  are  vegetable  eaters  feed 
so  continually  ? 

Because  their  focc  contains  but  a  small  proportion  of  nutrition, 
so  that  it  is  necessary  to  digest  a  large  quantity  to  obtain 
sufficient  nourishment. 

1092.  Why  do  flesh  eating  animals  satisfy  themselves  with 
a  rapid  meal  ? 

Because  the  food  which  they  eat  is  rich  in  nutritious  matter, 
and  more  readily  digestible  than  vegetable  food;  it  does  not 
therefore,  require  the  same  amount  of  -grinding  with  the  teeth. 


Fig.  73.— PELICAN  WITH  DILATED  POUCH. 

1093.   "Why  has  the  pelican  a  large  pouch  under  its  lill 
Because  it  subsists  upon  fish,  generally  of  the  smaller  kind,  and 
uses  its  pouch  as  a  net  for  catching-  them ;  the  pouch  also  serves  as 


THE   SEASON    WHY.  277 


*  And  God  created  great  whales,  and  every  living  creature  that  moveth,  which 

the  waters  brought  forth  abundantly,  after  their  kind,  and  every  winged 

fowl  after  his  kind:  and  God  saw  that  it  was  good."— GENESIS  i. 

a  paunch,  in  which  the  fish  are  stored,  until  the  bird  ceases  from 
the  exertion  of  fishing,  and  takes  its  meal  at  leisure. 

In  their  wild  state  they  hover  and  wheel  over  the  surface  of  the  water, 
watching  t?v5  shoals  of  fish  beneath,  and  suddenly  sweeping  down,  bury  them- 
selves in  the  foaming  waves;  rising  immediately  from  the  water  by  their  own 
buoyancy,  up  they  soar,  the  pouch  laden  with  the  fish  scooped  up  during  their 
momentary  submersion.  The  number  of  fish  the  pouch  of  this  species  will  con- 
tain may  be  easily  imagined  when  we  state  that  it  is  so  dilatable  as  to  be 
capable  of  containing  two  gallons  of  water;  yet  the  bird  has  the  power  of 
contracting  this  membranous  expansion,  by  wrinkling  it  up  under  the  lower 
mandible,  until  it  is  scarcely  to  be  seen.  In  shallow  inlets,  which  the  pelicans 
often  frequent,  it  nets  its  prey  with  great  adroitness. 

The  pelican  chooses  remote  and  solitary  islands,  isolated  rocks  in  the  sea,  the 
borders  of  lakes  and  rivers,  as  its  breeding  place.  The  nest,  placed  on  the  ground, 
is  made  of  coarse  grasses,  and  the  eggs,  which  are  white,  are  two  or  three  in 
number.  While  the  female  is  incubating,  the  male  brings  fish  to  her  in  his 
pouch,  and  the  young,  when  hatched,  are  assidiously  attended  b.y  the  parents, 
who  feed  them  by  pressing  the  pouch  against  the  breast,  so  as  to  transfer  the 
fish  from  the  former  into  the  throats  of  the  young.  This  action  has  doubtless 
given  origin  to  the  old  fable  of  the  pelican  feeding  its  young  with  blood  drawn 
from  its  own  breast.— Knight's  Animal  Kingdom. 

1094.  Why  do  the  smaller  animals  breed  more  abundantly 
than  the  larger  ones  ? 

Because  the  smaller  ones  are  designed  to  be  the  food  of  the 
larger  ones,  and  are  therefore  created  in  numbers  adapted  to  that 
end.  An  elephant  produces  but  one  calf;  the  whale  but  one  young 
one  ;  a  butterfly  lays  six  hundred  eggs  ;  silk-worms  lay  from  1,000 
to  2,000  eggs ;  the  wasp,  5,000 ;  the  ant,  4,000  to  5,000 ;  the  queen 
bee,  5,000  to  6,000,  or  40,000  to  50,000  in  a  season  ;  and  a  species 
of  white  ant  (termes  fatalis)  produces  86,400  eggs  in  a  day.  Birds 
of  prey  seldom  produce  more  than  two  eggs  ;  the  sparrow  and  duck 
tribe  frequently  sit  upon  a  dozen ;  in  rivers  there  prevail  a  thousand 
minnows  for  one  pike ;  and  in  the  sea,  a  million  of  herrings  for  a 
single  shark;  while  of  the  animalcules  upon  which  the  whale 
subsists,  there  must  exist  hundreds  of  millions  for  one  whale. 

1095.  Why  has  the  whale  feathery-liJce  lamincs  of  whale* 
lone  extending  from  its  jaws  'f 

Because  these  feathery  bones,  lying  side  by  side,  form  a  sieve,  or 
strainer,  for  the  large  volumes  of  water  which  the  whale  receives 
into  its  its  mouth,  drawing  off  therefrom  millions  of  small  animals, 


278  THE   BEASON   WHY. 


'  Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength  ?  hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with  thunder  ? 

*  *  He  paveth  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in  his  strength :  he  goeth  on 

to  meet  the  armed  men." — JOB  xxxix. 


which  form  a  jelly-like  mass  upon  which  the  whale  feeds.  A  whale 
has  been  known  to  weigh  as  much  as  249  tons,  and  its  blubber 
yielded  4,000  gallons  of  oil.  How  many  millions  of  living  creatures 
must  have  gone  to  make  up  that  enormous  mass  of  animal  matter  ! 

1096.  Why  have  cats,  and  various  other  animals,  whiskers  ? 
The  whiskers  of  cats,  and    of  the  cat  tribe,  are  exceedingly 

sensitive,  enabling  them,  when  seizing  their  prey  in  the  dark,  to  feel 
its  position  most  acutely.  These  hairs  are  supplied,  through  their 
roots,  with  branches  of  the  same  nerves  that  give  sensibility  to  the 
lips,  and  that  in  insects  supply  their  "feelers." 

1097.  Why  lias  the  horse  a  smaller  stomach  proportion- 
ately than  other  animals  ? 

Because  the  horse  was  created  for  speed.  Had  he  the 
ruminating  stomach  of  the  ox,  he  would  be  quite  unfitted  for  the 
labour  which  he  now  so  admirably  performs. 

1098.  Why  has  the  horse  no  gall-bladder  ? 

Because  the  rapid  digestion  of  the  horse,  by  which  its  fitness  for 
speed  is  greatly  increased,  does  not  require  the  storing  up  of  the 
bile  as  in  other  animals  in  which  the  digestive  process  is  a  slower 
operation. 

1099.  Why  do   certain  butterflies   lay   their  eggs  upon 
callage  leaves  ? 

Because  the  cabbage  leaves  are  the  food  of  the  young 
caterpillars;  and  although  the  butterfly  does  not  subsist  herself 
upon  the  leaf,  she  knows  by  instinct  that  the  leaf  will  afford  food  to 
her  future  young  ;  she  therefore  lays  her  eggs  where  her  young  ones 
will  find  food. 

This  explanation  applies  to  many  insects  that  lay  their  eggs  upon  other 
plants 

1100.  Why  have  insects  long  projections  from  their  heads, 
like  horns  or  feathers  ? 

Because  those  organs  (the  antennae),  are  those  through  which 
some  insects  hear  and  others  feel;  and  the  projecting  of  these 
antennas  from  their  bodies  probably  enables  them  to  hear  or  feel 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  270 


"  My  son,  eat  thou  honey,  because  it  is  good ;  and  the  honey-comb,  which  is 
sweet  to  thy  taste."— PEOVEEBS  xxiv. 


more  acutely  while  their  wings  are  in  motion,  without  the  inter- 
ference  of  the  vibrations  of  their  wings. 

1101.  Why  have  bees  stings  ? 

Because  they  gather  and  store  up  honey  which  would  constantly 
attract  other  insects,  and  the  bees  would  be  robbed  of  their  food 
but  for  the  sting,  which  is  given  to  them  for  protection. 

1102.  Why  have  flies  fine  hairs  growing  at  the  extremities 
of  their  legs? 

Because  they  require  to  cleanse  their  bodies  and  wings,  and  to 
free  them  from  particles  of  dust.  And  as  they  cannot  turn  their 
heads  for  this  purpose,  they  have  hairy  feet,  which  serve  as  brushes, 
by  which  any  part  of  their  bodies  can  be  reached  and  cleaned. 


CHAPTER    LVI. 

1103.  Why  when  the  perfume  of  flowers  is  unusually 
perceptible  may  wet  weather  be  anticipated  ? 

Because  when  the  air  is  damp  it  conveys  the  odours  of  flowers 
mora  effectively  than  it  does  when  dry. 

1104.  Why  when  swallows  fly  low  may  wet  weather  be 
expected  ? 

Because  the  insects  which  the  swallows  pursue  in  their  flight  are 
flying  low,  to  escape  the  moisture  of  the  upper  regions  of  the 


1105.  Why  do  ducks  and  geese  go  to  the  water ,  and  dash  it 
over  their  backs  on  the  approach  of  rain  ? 

Because  by  wetting  the  outer  coat  of  their  feathers  before  the 
rain  falls,  by  sudden  dashes  of  water  over  the  surface,  they  prevent 
the  drops  of  rain  from  penetrating  to  their  bodies  through  the  open 
and  dry  feathers. 

1106.  Why  do  horses  and  cattle  stretch  out  their  necks 
and  snuff  the  air  on  the  approach  of  rain? 

Because  they  smell  the  fragrant  perfume  which  is  diffused  in  the 
air  by  its  increasing  moistness. 


280  THE   EEASON    WHY. 


'I  will  remember  the  works  of  the  Lord:  Surely  I  will  remember  thy  wonders 
of  old." — PSALM  LXXVII. 


1107.  Why  may  change  of  weather  be  anticipated  when 
domestic  animals  are  restless  ? 

Because  their  skins  are  exceedingly  sensitive  to  atmospheric 
influences,  and  they  are  oppressed  and  irritated  by  the  changing 
condition  of  the  atmosphere. 

1108.  Why  may  fine  weather  be  expected  when  spiders 
are  seen  busily  constructing  their  webs  ? 

Because  those  insects  are  highly  sensitive  to  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  when  it  is  setting  fine  they  build  their  webs, 
because  they  know  instinctively  thatjlies  will  be  abroad. 

1109.  Why  is  wet  weather  to  be  expected  when  spiders 
hide  ? 

Because  it  shows  that  they  are  aware  that  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere  does  not  favour  the  flight  of  insects. 

1110.  Why  if  gnats  fly  in  large  numbers  may  fine  weather 
be  expected  ? 

Because  it  shows  that  they  feel  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  to  be 
favourable,  which  induces  them  all  to  leave  their  places  of  shelter 

1111.  Why  if  owls  scream  during  foul  weather,  will  it 
change  toflne  ? 

Because  the  birds  are  pleasurably  excited  by  a  favourable  change 
in  the  atmosphere. 

1112.  Why  is  it  said  that  the  moping  of  the  owl  foretels 
death  ? 

Because  owls  scream  when  the  weather  is  on  the  change ;  and 
when  a  patient  is  lingering  on  a  death  bed,  the  alteration  in  the 
state  of  the  atmosphere  frequently  induces  death,  because  the 
faint  and  expiring  flame  of  life  has  not  strength  enough  to  adapt 
itself  to  the  change. 

1113.  Why  may  wet  weather  be  expected  when  spiders 
break  off  their  webs,  and  remove  them? 

Because  the  insects,  anticipating  the  approach  of  rain,  remove 
their  webg  for  preservation. 


THE   SEASON    WLIT.  281 


"  There  shall  the  great  owl  make  her  nest,  and  lay,  and  hatch,  and  gather  under 

her  shadow :  there  shall  the  vultures  also  be  gathered,  every  one  with  her 

mate."— ISAIAH  xxxiv. 

1114.  Why  may  we  expect  a  continuance  of  fine  weather 
when  lees  wander  far  from  their  hives  ? 

Because  the  bees  feel  instinctively  that  from  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere  they  may  wander  far  in  search  of  honey,  without  th* 
danger  of  being  overtaken  by  rain. 

1115.  Why  if  people  feel  their  corns  ache,  and  their  bones 
rheumatic,  may  rain  be  expected  ? 

Because  the  dampness  of  the  atmosphere  affects  its  pressure  upon 
the  body,  and  causes  a  temporary  disturbance  of  the  system.  All 
general  disturbances  of  the  body,  manifest  themselves  in  those 
parts  which  are  in  a  morbid  state — as  in  a  corn,  a  rheumatic  bone, 
or  a  decayed  tooth. 

1116.  Why  if  various  flowers  close  may  rain  be  expected  ? 
Because  plants  are  highly  sensitive  to  atmospheric  changes,  and 

close  their  petals  to  protect  their  stamens. 

1117.  Why  when  moles  throw  up  their  hills  may  rain  be 
expected  ? 

Because  the  moles  know  instinctively,  that  on  the  approach  of 
wet,  worms  move  in  the  ground;  the  moles  therefore  become 
active,  and  form  their  hills. 

1118.  Why  is  a  magpie,  when  seen  alone,  said  to  fortell 
bad  weather  ? 

Because  magpies  generally  fly  in  company ;  but  on  the  approach 
of  wet  or  cold,  one  remains  in  the  nest  to  take  care  of  the  young, 
while  the  other  one  wanders  alone  in  search  of  food. 

1119.  Why  do  sea-gulls  appear  numerous  in  fine  weather  ? 
Because  the  fishes  swim  near  to  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  the 

birds  assemble  over  the  sea  to  catch  the  fish,  instead  of  sitting  on 
rocks,  or  wading  on  the  shore. 

1120.  Why  do  sea-gulls  fly  over  the  land,  on  the  approach 
^of  stormy  weather? 

Because  in  stormy  weather  they  cannot  catch  fish  ;  and  the 
earth-worms  come  up  on  tht  land  when  the  rain  falls. 


282  THE   SEASON    WHY. 


"And  I  said,  Oh,  that  I  had  wings  like  a  dove !  for  then  would  I  fly  away,  and  be 
at  rest." — PSALM.  LV. 


1121.  Wliy  if  birds  cease  to  sing,  may  wet,  and  proldbly 
thunder,  be  expected. 

Because  birds  are  depressed  by  an  unfavourable  change  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  lose  those  joyful  spirits  which  give  rise  to  their 
songs. 

1122.  Why  if  cattle  run  around  in  meadows,  may  thunder 
be  expected  t 

Because  the  electrical  state  of  the  atmosphere  has  the  effect  of 
making  them  feel  uneasy  and  irritable,  and  they  chase  each  other 
about  to  get  rid  of  the  irritability. 

1123.  Why  if  birds  of  passage  arrive  early,  may  severe 
weather  be  expected  ? 

Because  it  shows  that  the  indications  of  unfavourable  weather 
have  set  in,  in  the  latitudes  from  which  the  birds  come,  and  that 
they  have  taken  an  early  flight  to  escape  it. 

1124.  Why  if  the  webs  of  the  gossamer  spider  fly  about  in 
the  autumn,  may  east  winds  be  anticipated  ? 

Because  an  east  wind  is  a  dry  and  dense  wind,  and  suitable  to  the 
flight  of  the  gossamer  spider ;  the  spider  feeling  instinctively  the 
dry  ness  of  the  air,  throws  out  its  web,  and  finds  it  more  than 
usually  buoyant  upon  the  dense  air. 

The  observation  of  the  changing  phenomena  which  attend  the  various  states 
of  the  weather  is  a  very  interesting  study,  though  no  general  rules  can  be 
laid  down  that  can  be  relied  upon,  because  there  are  modifying  circum- 
stances which  influence  the  weather  in  various  localities  and  climates. 
To  observe  weather  indications  accurately,  no  phenomenon  should  be  taken 
alone,  but  several  should  be  regarded  together.  The  character  and  the  duration 
of  the  weather  of  the  preceding  days,  the  direction  of  the  wind,  the  forms  of  the 
clouds,  the  indications  of  the  barometer,  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  thermometer,  and 
the  instinctive  forewarnings  of  birds,  beasts,  insects,  and  flowers,  should  all  be 
taken  into  accouut.  Although  no  direct  material  advantages  attend  such  a 
study,  it  induces  a  habit  of  observation,  and  developes  the  inductive  faculty  of 
the  mind,  which,  when  applied  to  more  significant  things,  may  trace  important 
effects  to  their  greater  causes. 


THE   EEASON    WHY.  283 


'  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard ;  consider  her  ways,  and  be  wise. '— PHOT.  VI. 


CHAPTER    LVII. 

1125.  Why  can  gossamer  spiders  float  through  the  air  ? 
Because,  having   no  wings,   and  being  deficient  in  the   active 

muscular  powers  of  other  spiders,  they  have  been  endowed  with  the 
power  of  spinning  a  web  which  is  so  light  that  it  floats  in  the 
air,  and  bears  the  body  of  the  gossamer  spider  from  place  to  place. 
Each  web  acts  as  a  balloon,  and  the  spider  attached  thereto  is  a 
little  aeronaut. 

1126.  Why  do  crickets  make  a  peculiar  chirping  sound  ? 
Because  they  have  hard  wing  cases,  by  the  friction  of  the  edges 

of  which  they  cause  their  peculiar  noise,  to  make  known  to  each 
other  where  they  are,  in  the  dark  crevices  in  which  they  hide. 


Fig.  74.— GLOW-WORM  USING  HIS  BETTSH. 

1127.  Why  has  the  glow-worm  a  brush   attached   to  its 
tail  ? 

Because  it  is  necessary  to  keep  its  back  very  clean,  that  the  light 
which  its  body  emits  may  not  be  dimmed. 

1128.  Why  does  the  glow-worm  emit  a  light  ? 

Because  the  female  glow-worm  is  without  wings,  but  the  male  is 
a  winged  insect.  The  female,  therefore,  is  endowed  with  the  power 
of  displaying  a  phosphorescent  light.  The  light  is  only  visible  by 


284  THE   SEASON    WHY. 


"  They  that  go  down  to  the  sea  in  great  ships,  that  do  business  in  great  waters 
these  see  the  works  of  the  Lord,  and  his  wonders  in  the  deep."— PSALM  cvn. 


night,  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  beautifully  adapted  for  the  purpose 
stated,  because  the  male  is  a  night-flying  insect,  and  never  ventures 
abroad  by  day. 

There  exists  some  difference  of  opinion  between  naturalists  upon  the  uses  of 
the  light  of  a  glow-worm ;  there  are  some  who  doubt  that  it  is  exhibited  to 
attract  the  flying  insect.  The  objectors,  however,  offer  no  explanation  of  the 
luminous  properties  of  the  worm.  Sir  Charles  Bell  says  the  preponderance  of 
tlie  argument  is  decidedly  in  favour  of  the  explanation  we  have  given. 

1129.  Why  does  not  the  iris  of  the  fish's  eye  contract  ? 
Because  the  diminished  light  in  water  is  never  too  strong  for 

the  retina. 

1130.  Why  is  the  eye  of  the  eel  covered  with  a  transparent 
horny  covering  ? 

Because,  as  the  eel  lives  in  holes,  and  pushes  its  head  into  mud, 
and  under  stones,  &c.,  it  needed  such  a  covering  to  defend  the  eye. 

1131.  Why  is  the  whale  provided  with  an  eye,  having 
remarkably  thick  and  strong  coats  ? 

Because,  when  he  is  attacked  by  the  sword-fish  and  the  shark,  he 
is  almost  helpless  against  his  enemies,  as  they  fix  themselves  upon 
his  huge  carcase.  He  therefore  dives  with  them  down  to  a  depth 
where  the  pressure  of  the  water  is  so  great  that  they  cannot  bear  it. 
The  eye  of  the  whale  is  expressly  organised  to  bear  the  immense 
pressure  of  extreme  ocean  depths,  without  impairing  the  sight. 

1132.  Why  have  fishes  no  eye-lids? 

Because  the  water  in  which  they  swim  keeps  their  eyes  moist. 
Eyelids  would  therefore  be  useless  to  them. 

1133.  Why  have  fishes  the  power  of  giving  their  eye-balls 
very  sudden  motion  T 

Because,  having  no  eyelids  (such  organs  being  unnecessary  to 
keep  their  eyes  moist),  they  still  need  the  power  of  freeing  their 
eyes  from  the  contact  of  foreign  matters ;  and  this  is  secured  to 
them  by  the  power  they  have  of  giving  the  eye-ball  a  very  rapid 
motion,  which  causes  reaction  in  the  fluid  surrounding  it,  and  sweep* 
the  surface. 

This  motion  may  frequently  be  seen  in  the  eyes  of  fishes,  in  glass  globes. 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  285 


"And  God  made  the  beast  of  the  earth  after  his  kind,  and  cattle  after  their 

kind,  and  everything  that  creepeth  upon  the  earth  after  his  kind : 

and  God  saw  that  it  was  good."— GENESIS  i. 

1134.  Why  is  the  lachrymal  secretion  of  the  horse's  eye 
thick  and  glutinous  ? 

Because,  as  his  eye  is  large,  and  constantly  exposed  to  dust  on 
journies,  it  is  provided  with  a  viscid  secretion,  which  cleanses  the 
eye,  and  more  instantly  and  securely  removes  the  dust,  than  a 
watery  secretion  would. 

1135.  Why  does  the  lower  bill  of  the  sea-crow  project 
beyond  the  upper  one  ? 

Because  the  bird  obtains  his  food  by  skimming  along  the  water, 
into  which  he  dips  his  bill,  and  lifts  his  food  out. 

1136.  Why  do  the  mandibles  of  the  cross-bill  overlap 
each  other  ? 

Because  the  bird  requires  a  peculiar  bill,  to  enable  it  to  split 
seeds  into  halves,  and  to  tear  the  open  cones  of  the  fir-tree. 

1137.  W  hy  are  the  tails  of  fishes  so  much  larger  than  their 
fins? 

Because  their  tails  are  their  chief  instruments  of  motion,  while 
their  fins  are  employed  simply  to  direct  their  progress,  and  steady 
their  movements. 

1138.  Why  have  oxen,  and  other  quadrupeds   a  tough 
ligament  called  the  "pax-wax"  running  from  their  backs  to 
their  heads  ? 

Because  their  heads  are  of  considerable  weight;  and  having 
frequent  occasion  to  lift  them,  they  are  provided  with  an  elastic 
ligament,  which  is  fastened  at  the  middle  of  their  backs,  while  its 
other  extremity  is  attached  to  the  head.  This  enables  them  to 
raise  their  heads  easily ;  otherwise  the  effort  to  do  so  would  be  a 
work  of  great  labour.  To  the  horse,  the  pax-wax  acts  as  a  natural 
bearing-rein,  assisting  it  to  hold  its  head  in  that  position  which  adds 
to  the  grace  and  beauty  of  the  animal. 

In  carving  beef,  this  ligament  may  be  seen  passing  along  the  vertebra  of  the 
neck,  the  chuck,  and  the  fore  ribs. 


286  THE   SEASON   WHY. 

"  He  shall  feed  his  flock  like  a  shepherd ;  he  shall  gather  the  lambs  with 

his  arm,  aud  carry  them  in  his  bosom,  and  shall  gently  lead  those 

that  are  with  young." — ISAIAH  XL. 

1139.  Why  have  the  females  of  the  kangaroo  and  opossum 
tribes  pouches,  or  pockets,  formed  in  the  skin  of  their  breasts 
for  the  reception  of  their  young  ? 

Because  their  young  ones  are  remarkably  small  and  helpless ; 
in  fact,  more  so  than  those  of  any  other  animal  of  equal  proportions. 
Besides  which,  the  full  grown  animals  have  very  long  hind-legs, 
and  they  progress  by  a  series  of  extraordinary  leaps.  It  would 
consequently  be  impossible  for  their  helpless  young  ones  to  follow 
them  :  God  has  therefore  given  to  female  kangaroos  and  opossums 
curious  pockets,  formed  out  of  their  own  skin,  in  which  they  place 
their  little  young  ones,  and  bear  them  through  their  surprising  leaps 
with  the  greatest  ease  and  safety. 


CHAPTER   LVIII. 

1140.  What  is  the  difference  between  an  animal,  a  plant, 
and  a  mineral  ? 

The  great  naturalist,  Linnaeus,  used  to  say  that  minerals,  and 
animals  grow,  live,  and  feel;  plants  grow  and  live;  and  minerals 
grow. 

Animals  are  here  defined  to  enjoy  three  conditions  of  existence ; 
plants  two  conditions  ;  and  minerals  one  condition. 

This  definition  has,  in  latter  days,  been  held  to  be  unsatisfactory, 
since  there  are  a  few  plants  that  are  supposed  to  feel,  and  a  few 
animals  that  are  supposed  to  have  even  less  feeling  than  the 
sensitive  plants  alluded  to. 

The  concise  definition  by  Linnaeus,  nevertheless,  is  true,  as  far  as 
regards  a  vast  majority  of  the  bodies  constituting  the  three  great 
kingdoms  of  nature.  And  it  may  be  sufficient  to  say  that 

Animals — grow,  live,  feel,  and  move, 

Plants — grow  and  live. 

Minerals — grow,  by  the  addition  of  particles  of  inorganic  matter. 

If  we  now  state  the  few  exceptions  that  are  admitted  to  this  definition,  we 
uhall  bring  the  explanation  as  near  to  the  truth,  as  the  present  state  of 
knowledge  will  permit. 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  287 


"And  God  said,  Behold,  I  have  given  you  every  herb  bearing  seed,  which  is 

upon  the  face  ef  all  the  earth,  and  every  tree,  in  the  which  is  the  fruit 

of  a  tree,  yielding  seed ;  to  you  it  shall  be  for  meat."—  GKBTESIS  I. 

1141.  Why  is  it  understood  that  some  plants  feel  ? 
Because  the  sensitive  plant  closes  its  leaves  on  being  touched; 

the  Venus 's  fly  trap  closes  its  leaves  upon  flies  that  alight  upon 
them ;  others  close  upon  the  approach  of  rain,  and  at  sunset,  and 
open  at  sunrise,  and  turn  towards  the  sun  during  its  daily  transit. 

1142.  Why  is  it  understood  that  some  plants  move  ? 
Because  certain  sea-weeds  throw  off  undeveloped  young  plants, 

which  move  through  the  water  by  the  aid  of  fine  cilia,  or  mus- 
cular hairs,  until  they  find  a  suitable  place  upon  which  to  attach 
themselves. 

The  roots  of  plants  will  penetrate  through  the  ground  in  the 
direction  of  water,  and  of  favourable  soil. 

1143.  Of  what  elementary  substances  are  plants  composed? 
Of  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen. 

1144.  Whence  do  plants  derive  those  substances  ? 
From  the  air,  the  earth,  and  water. 

1145.  How  do  plants  obtain  carbon  ? 

They  obtain  it  chiefly  from  the  air,  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid 
gas.  The  carbon,  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  thrown  out 
by  the  breath  of  animals,  and  by  other  processes  in  nature,  is 
absorbed  by  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  the  oxygen  which  had  united 
with  the  carbon  to  form  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  is  again  set 
free  for  the  use  of  animals. 

1146.  How  do  plants  obtain  oxygen  ? 

They  obtain  it  from  the  atmospheric  air.  But  as  they  do  not 
require  a  large  amount  of  oxygen  for  their  own  use,  they  throw  off 
the  amount  which  is  in  excess,  after  having  separated  it  from  the 
other  elements  with  which  it  was  combined  when  taken  up  by  them. 
From  the  humble  blade  of  grass,  to  the  stately  tree  of  the  forest, 
plants  operate  to  purify  the  air,  and  to  correct  and  counteract  the 
corruption  of  the  air,  by  the  myriads  of  animals  inhabiting  the 
earth. 

It  has  been  generally  stated  that  plants  in  rooms  purify  the  air  by  absorbing 
carbonic  acid  by  day,  and  releasing  a  part  of  the  oxygen ;  but  that,  as  the  pre- 
sence of  light  is  necessary  to  produce  this  action,  they  do  not  restore  oxygen  to 


288  THE   REASON   WHY. 


1  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God :  and  the  firmament  showeth  his  handj 

work.    Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech,  and  night  untq  night  showeth 

knowledge."— Ps  AJLM  xix. 


the  air,  by  night,  but,  on  the  contrary,  give  off  carbonic  acid  gas.  Therefore  il 
has  been  stated  that  plants  in  rooms  by  night  are  unhealthy.  Mr.  Robert 
Hunt,  one  of  the  ablest  chemists  of  the  present  time,  makes  the  following 
remarks  upon  this  subject  in  his  "  Poetry  of  Science  :"— 

"  The  power  of  decomposing  carbonic  acid  is  a  vital  function  which  belongs 
to  the  leaves  and  bark.  It  has  been  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Leibig,  that 
during  the  night  the  plant  acts  only  as  a  mere  bundle  of  fibres— that  it  allows 
of  the  circulation  of  carbonic  acid  and  its  evaporation,  unchanged.  In  his 
eagerness  to  support  his  chemical  hypothesis  of  respiration,  the  able  chemist 
neglected  to  enquire  if  this  was  absolutely  correct.  The  healthy  plant  never 
ceases  to  decompose  carbonic  acid  during  one  moment  of  its  existence ;  but 
during  the  night,  when  the  excitement  of  light  is  removed,  and  the  plant 
reposes,  its  vital  powers  are  at  their  minimum  of  action,  and  a  much  less 
quantity  is  decomposed  than  when  a  stimulating  sun,  by  the  aciion  of  its  rays, 
is  compelling  the  exertion  of  every  vital  function." 

In  hot,  swampy  countries,  where  vegetation  is  very  rapid,  and  the  soil  loaded 
with  decomposing  carbonic  matter,  the  plants  absorb  more  carbonic  acid  than 
they  require,  and  they  then  evolve  carbonic  acid  gas  from  their  leaves.  Hence 
such  climates  as  the  West  Indies  are  injurious  to  life,  though  favourable  to 
vegetation. 

1147.  How  do  plants  obtain  hydrogen  ? 

They  obtain  liydrogen  in  combination  with  oxygen  in  water,  and 
with  nitrogen,  in  the  form  of  ammonia,  as  which  it  exists  in  animal 
manures. 

1148.  How  do  plants  obtain  nitrogen  ? 

From  the  atmospheric  air,  and  from  the  soil,  in  which  it  is 
combined  with  other  elements. 

1149.  How  do  plants  apply  these  elements  to  the  formation 
of  their  own  structures? 

When  those  substances  which  form  the  food  of  plants  are  absorbed, 
either  by  their  leaves  or  their  roots,  they  are  converted,  with  the 
aid  of  water,  into  a  nutritive  sap,  which  answers  the  same  purposes 
in  plants  as  blood  does  in  animals. 

1150.  How  is  the  nutritive  sap  applied  to  the  growth  and 
enlargement  of  the  plant  f 

Every  seed  contains  a  small  amount  of  nutrition,  sufficient  for  the 
sustentation  of  the  germ  of  the  plant,  until  those  vessels  are 
formed,  by  which  the  nutritive  elements  can  be  absorbed  and  used 
for  the  further  development  of  the  living  structure. 

The  earth,  penetrated  by  the  sun's  rays,  warms  the  sleeping 
germ,  and  quickens  it  into  life.  For  a  short  time  the  germ  lives  upon 


THE    BEASON    WHY.  289 


:  He  causeth  the  grass  to  grow  for  the  cattle,  and  herb  for  the  service  of  man : 
that  he  may  bring  forth  food  out  of  the  earth." — PSALM  civ. 


the  seed,  which,  moistened  and  warmed  by  the  soil,  yields  a  kind  of 
glutinous  sap,  out  of  which  the  first  members  of  the  plant  are 
formed.  And  then  the  tender  leaf,  looking  up  tc  the  sky,  and  the 
slender  rootlet  penetrating  the  soil,  begin  to  draw  their  sustenance 
from  the  vast  stores  of  nature. 

1151.  Of 'what  do  vegetable  structures  consist? 

Of  membranes,  or  thin  tissues,  which,  being  variously  arranged, 
form  cells,  tubes,  air  passages,  &c.  Of 'fibres,  which  form  a  stronger 
kind  of  membrane,  and  which  is  variously  applied  to  the  production 
of  the  organs  of  the  plants.  And  of  organs,  formed  by  those 
elementary  substances,  by  which  the  plants  absorb,  secrete,  and 
grow,  and  fulfil  the  conditions  of  their  existence. 

1152.  Why  are  seeds  generally  enveloped  in  hard  cases  ? 
Because  the  covering  of  the  seed,  like  the  shell  of  an  egg,  is 

designed  to  preserve  the  germ  within  from  the  influence  of  external 
agencies,  until  the  time  for  development  has  arrived,  and  the 
conditions  of  germination  are  fulfilled. 

1153.  Why  does  a  seed  throw  out  a  root,  before  it  forms  a 
leaf? 

Because  moisture,  which  the  root  absorbs  from  the  earth,  is 
necessary  to  enable  the  germ  to  use  the  nutrition  which  the  seed 
itself  contains,  and  ou\,  of  which  the  leaf  must  be  eliminated. 
Moisture  forms  a  kind  of  gluten,  in  which  the  starch  of  the  seed  is 
dissolved,  and  converted  into  sugar,  the  sugar  into  carbonaceous  sap, 
and  the  sap  into  cellular  tissue  and  woody  fibre,  as  the  leaves 
present  themselves  to  the  influence  of  the  air  and  light. 

1154.  Why  does  a  plant  grow  ? 

Because,  as  soon  as  membranes  and  vessels  are  organised  in  the 
young  germ,  the  nutritive  fluid,  formed  by  its  first  organs,  begins  to 
move  through  the  fine  structures,  and  from  that  time  the  plant 
commences  to  incorporate  with  its  own  substance  the  elements 
with  which  it  is  surrounded,  that  are  suitable  to  its  development. 

13 


290  THE   REASON   WHY. 


'  Can  the  rush  grow  up  without  mire  ?    can  the  flag  grow  without  wat«r  ¥ 

Whilst  it  is  yet  in  his  greenness,  and  not  cut  down,  it  withereth  before 

any  other  herb."— JOB  viu. 


CHAPTER  LIX. 

1155.  Why,  if  we  break  the  stem  of  a  hyacinth,  do  we  se6 
a  glutinous  fluid  exude  ? 

Because,  by  breaking  the  stem,  we  rupture  the  vessels  of  the 
plant,  and  cause  the  nutritive  fluid  to  escape.  The  sap  of  the  plant 
is  analagous  to  the  Hood  of  man,  and  the  vessels,  to  the  arteries 
and  veins  of  the  animal  body. 

1156.  Why,  if  we  split  the  petal  of  a  tulip,  do  we  see  cells 
containing  matter  of  various  colours? 

Because,  by  splitting  the  petal  of  the  flower,  we  disclose  the 
anatomy  of  its  structure,  and  bring  to  view  those  cells,  or  organs, 
of  the  vegetable  body,  by  which  the  different  colouring  matters 
are  secreted. 

1157."  Why,  if  we  break  a  pea-shell  across,  do  we  discover 
a  transparent  membrane  which  may  be  removed  from  the 
green  cells  underneath  ? 

Because  we  separate  from  the  cellular,  or  fleshy  part  of  the  shell, 
the  membrane,  which  forms  the  epidermis,  and  answers  to  the 
skin  of  the  animal  body. 

1158.  Why,  if  we  cut  through  a  cabbage  stump,  do  we  find 
an  outer  coat  of  woody  fibre,  and  an  inner  substance  of  cellular 
matter  ? 

Because  the  woody  fibre  forms  a  kind  of  skeleton,  which  supports 
the  internal  stricture  of  the  plant,  and  gives  form  and  character  to 
its  organisation.  The  woody  fibre  of  plants  is  analagous  to  the 
bony  structure  of  animal  bodies. 

1159.  W^hy,  if  we  cut  across  the  stem  of  a  plant  do  we  see 
umerous  tubes  arranged  in  parallel  lines  ? 

Because  we  thereby  bring  to  view  the  vessels  formed  by  the 
membranes  and  fibres  of  the  vegetable  body,  for  the  transmission  of 
the  fluids,  by  which  the  structure  is  sustained. 

Skeleton  leaves,  and  seed  vessels  of  plants,  form  exceedingly  interesting 


THE   EEASON    WHY  291 


"  It  was  planted  in  a  good  soil  by  great  waters,  that  it  might  bring  forth 

branches,  and  that  it  might  bear  fruit,  that  it  might  be  a  goodly 

vine."— EZEKIEL  xvn. 


objects,  and  serve  to  illustrate  the  wonderful  structure  of  plants.  With  patience 
and  care,  they  maybe  produced  by  any  person,  and  will  afford  an  interesting 
occupation.  The  leaves  should  be  gathered  when  they  are  in  perfection— that 
is,  when  some  of  the  earliest  leaves  begin  to  fall  from  the  trees.  Select  perfect 
leaves,  taking  care  that  they  are  not  broken,  or  injured  by  insects.  Lay  them 
in  pans  of  rain  water,  and  expose  them  to  the  air  to  undergo  decomposition. 
Renew  the  water  from  time  to  time,  taking  care  not  to  damage  the  leaves.  They 
imed  not  be  examined  more  than  once  a  week,  and  then  only  to  see  that  the 
water  is  sufficient  to  cover  them.  Give  them  sufficient  time  for  their  soft  parts 
to  become  decomposed,  then  take  them  out,  and  laying  them  on  a  white  plate 
M  ith  a  little  water,  wash  away  carefully,  with  a  camel-hair  pencil,  the  green 
matter  that  clings  to  the  fibres.  The  chief  requirement  is  patience  on  the  part 
of  the  operator,  to  allow  the  leaves  and  seed  vessels  sufficient  time  to  decompose. 
Some  leaves  will  take  a  few  weeks,  and  others  a  few  months,  but  a  large  panful 
may  be  put  to  decompose  at  the  same  time,  and  there  will  always  be  some 
ready  lor  the  process  of  cleansing.  When  they  are  thorougly  cleaned,  they 
should  be  bleached,  by  steeping  fora  short  time  in  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime.  They  should  then  be  dried,  and  either  pressed  flat,  or  arranged  in  boquets 
for  preservation  under  glass  shades.  The  result  will  amply  reward  the  perse- 
v  erauce  of  the  operator. 

1160.  Why  are  clayey  soils  unfavourable  to  vegetation  ? 

Because  the  soil  is  too  close  and  adhesive  to  allow  of  the  free 
passage  of  air  or  water  to  the  roots  of  the  plants ;  it  also  obstructs 
the  expansion  of  the  fibres  of  the  roots. 

1161.  Why  are  sandy  soils  unfavourable  to  vegetation  ? 

Because  they  consist  of  particles  that  have  too  little  adhesion 
to  each  other ;  they  do  not  retain  sufficient  moisture  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  plants ;  and  they  allow  too  much  solar  heat 
to  pass  to  the  roots. 

1162.  Why  are  chalk  soils  unfavourable  to  vegetation  ? 

Because  they  do  not  absorb  the  solar  rays,  and  are  therefore 
cold  to  the  roots  of  plants. 

1163.  Why  are  mixed  soils  favourable  to  vegetation  ? 

Because  they  contain  the  elements  of  nutrition  essential  to  the 
development  of  the  vegetables,  and  the  plants  absorb  from  them 
those  constituents  which  are  necessary  to  their  growth. 

1164.  Why  do  farmers  sow  different  crops  in  rotation  ? 
Because  every  plant  takes  something  from  the  soil,  and  *ivcs 


292  THE    KEASOJT    WHY. 


1  He  watereth  the  hills  from  his  chambers ;  the  earth  is  satisfied  with  the 
fruit  of  thy  works." — PSALM  civ. 


something  back ;  but  all  kinds  of  plants  do  not  absorb  nor  restore 
the  elements  in  the  same  proportions.  Therefore  a  succession  of 
crops  of  one  kind  would  soon  impoverish  the  soil;  but  a  succes- 
sion of  crops  of  different  kinds  will  compensate  the  soil,  in  some 
degree,  for  the  nourishment  withdrawn. 

1165.   IV  hy  do  farmers  manure  their  lands  ? 
Because,  as  soils  vary,  and  crops  impoverish  tke  soils,  the  farmer 
employs  manure  to  restore  fertility,  and  to  adapt  the  soils  to  the 
wants  of  tlie  plants  he  desires  to  cultivate. 

It  is  remarkable  that  Nature  herself  points  out  to  man  the  necessity  for 
changing  the  succession  of  vegetable  growths. 

\Vhen  plants  have  exhausted  the  soil  upon  which  they  grow,  they  will  push 
their  roots  far  in  search  of  sustenance,  and  in  time  migrate  to  a  new  soil,  while 
other  plants  will  spring  up  and  thrive  upon  the  area  vacated.  When  a  forest  in 
North  America  is  destroyed  by  fire,  the  trees  that  grow  afterwards  are  unlike 
those  that  the  fire  consumed,  and  evidently  arise  from  seeds  that  have  long  lain 
buried  in  the  earth,  waiting  the  time  when  the  ascendancy  of  the  reigning  order 
of  plants  should  cease. 

1166.  Why  are  grasses  so  widely  diffused  throughout  nature? 
Because  they  form  the  food  of  a  very  large  portion  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  They  have  therefore  been  abundantly  provided.  No 
spot  of  earth  is  allowed  to  remain  idle  long.  When  the  foot  of  man 
ceases  to  tread  down  the  path,  grass  immediately  begins  to  appear  ; 
and  by  its  universality  and  the  hardihood  of  its  nature,  it  clothes 
the  earth  as  with  a  carpet. 

Many  grasses,  whose  leaves  are  so  dry  and  withered  that  the  plants  appear 
dead,  revive  and  renew  their  existence  in  the  spring  by  pushing  forth  new  leaves 
from  the  bosom  of  the  former  ones.—  Withering" s  Botany, 

Grasses  are  Nature's  care.  With  these  she  clothes  the  earth  ;  with  these  she 
sustains  its  inhabitants.  Cattle  feed  upon  their  leaves;  birds  upon  their 
smaller  seeds ;  men  upon  the  larger ;  for,  few  readers  need  be  told  that  the 
plants  which  produce  our  bread-corn,  belong  to  this  class.  In  those  tribes 
which  are  more  generally  considered  as  grasses,  their  extraordinary  means  and 
powers  of  preservation  and  increase,  their  hardiness  their  almost  unconquer- 
able disposition  to  spread,  their  faculties  of  revivisccnce,  coincide  with  the 
intention  of  nature  concerning  them.  They  thrive  under  a  treatment  by  which 
other  plants  are  destroyed.  The  more  their  leaves  are  consumed,  the  more 
t  heir  roots  increase.  The  more  they  are  trampled  upon,  the  thicker  they  grow. 
Many  of  the  seemingly  dry  and  dead  leaves  of  grasses  revive,  and  renew  their 
verdure  in  the  spring.  In  lofty  mountains,  where  the  summer  heats  are  not 
sufficient  to  ripen  the  seeds,  grasses  abound  which  are  viviparous,  and 
consequently  able  to  propagate  themselves  without  seed.  It  is  an  observation, 
likewise,  which  has  often  been  made,  that  herbivorous  animals  attach 
themselves  to  the  leaves  of  grasses ;  and,  if  at  liberty  in  their  pastures  to  rango 
and  choose,  leave  untouched  the  straws  which  support  the  flowers.— Paley. 


THE    REASON    WHY.  293 


'  For  the  earth  bringeth  forth  fruit  of  herself;  first  the  blade,  then  the  ear, 
after  that  the  full  ear  in  the  corn."— MABK  v. 


CHAPTER    LX. 

1167.  W  hy  do  some  plants  droop,  and  turn  to  the  earth 
after  sunset  ? 

Because,  when  the  warmth  of  the  sun's  rays  is  withdrawn,  they 
turn  downwards,  and  receive  the  warmth  of  the  earth  by  radiation. 

1167*  Why  does  the  young  ear  of  corn  first  appear 
enfolded  in  two  green  leaves  ? 

Because  the  light  and  air  would  act  too  powerfully  for  the  young 
ear;  two  leaves  therefore  join,  and  embrace  the  ear,  and  protect  it 
until  it  has  acquired  strength,  when  they  divide,  and  leave  the  ear 
to  swell  and  ripen. 

1168.  Why  are  the  seeds  of  plants  usually  formed  within 
the  corollas  of  flowers  ? 

Because  the  petals  of  the  flowers,  surrounding  the  seeds,  afford 
them  protection  until  they  are  ripened,  when  the  flower  dies,  and 
the  petals  fall  to  the  ground. 

1169.  Why  does  the  flower  of  the  poppy  turn  down  during 
the  early  formation  of  seed? 

Because  the  heat  would  probably  be  too  great  for  the  seed  in  its 
early  stage.  The  plant  is  therefore  provided  with  a  curious  curv6 
in  its  stalk,  which  turns  the  flower  downward.  But  when  the 
seeds  are  prepared  for  ripening,  the  stalk  erects  itself,  and  the 
seeds  are  then  presented  to  the  ripening  influences  of  the  sun. 

1170.  Why  have  plants  of  the  pea  tribe,  a  folding  blossom 
called  the  "  boat,"  or  "  keel?" 

Because,  within  that  blossom  the  pea  is  formed,  and  the  shape 
of  the  blossom  is  exactly  suited  to  that  of  the  pea  which  is  formed 
therein.  The  blossom  is  itself  protected  by  external  petals ;  and 
when  the  wind  blows,  and  threatens  to  destroy  the  parts  upon 
which  the  seeds  depend,  the  plants  turn  their  backs  to  the  wind, 
and  shelter  the  seed. 


294  THE   REASON   WHY. 

"The  fruit  of  the  righteous  is  a  tree  of  life ;  and  he  that  winneth  souls 
is  wise."— PHOVEKBS  xr. 


1171.  Why  are  the  leaf  buds  enclosed  in  scales  which 
fall  off  as  the  leaf  opens? 

Because  the  scales  serve  as  a  shelter  to  the  tender  structure  of 
the  young  leaf.  The  scales  are  rudimentary  leaves,  formed  at  the 
end  of  the  previous  season,  and  which,  being  undeveloped  then,  serve 
to  guard  the  young  leaves  of  the  future  year. 

In  trees,  especially  thosi  "which  are  natives  of  colder  climates,  this  point  is 
taken  up  earlier.  Many  of  these  trees  (observe  in  particular  the  ash  and  the 
horse-chestnut)  produce  the  embryos  of  the  leaves  and  flowers  in  one  year,  and 
bring  them  to  perfection  the  following.  There  is  a  winter  therefore  to  be  gotten 
over.  Now  what  we  are  to  remark  is,  how  nature  has  prepared  for  the  trials 
and  severities  of  that  season.  These  tender  embryos  are,  in  the  first  place 
wrapped  up  with  a  compactness,  which  no  art  can  imitate ;  in  which  state  they 
compose  what  we  call  the  bud.  This  is  not  all.  The  bud  itself  is  enclosed  in 
scales  ;  which  scales  are  formed  from  the  remains  of  past  leaves,  and  the  rudi- 
ments of  future  ones.  Neither  is  this  the  whole.  In  the  coldest  climates,  u 
third  preservative  is  added,  by  the  bud  having  a  coat  of  gum  or  resin,  which, 
being  congealed,  resists  the  strongest  frosts.  On  the  approach  of  warm  weather 
this  gum  is  softened,  and  ceases  to  be  an  hinderance  to  the  expansion  of  the 
leaves  and  flowers.  All  this  care  is  part  of  that  system  of  provisions  which  has 
for  its  object  and  consummation,  the  production  and  perfecting  of  the  seeds.— 
Paley. 

1172.  Why  are  the  seeds  of  many  plants  enclosed  in  a 
rich  juice,  or  pulp  ? 

Because  the  matter  by  which  the  seed  is  surrounded,  as  well  as 
being  intended  fix  the  nourishment  and  care  of  the  seed,  is 
designed  for  the  use  of  man  and  of  animals,  by  whom  the  seed  is 
set  free  to  take  its  place  in  the  earth. 

By  virtue  of  this  process,  so  necessary,  but  so  diversified,  we  have  the  seed,  at 
length,  in  stone-fruits  and  nuts,  incased  in  a  strong  shell,  the  shell  itself 
enclosed  in  a  pulp  or  husk,  by  which  the  seed  within  is,  or  hath  been,  fed ;  or, 
more  generally  (as  in  grapes,  oranges,  and  the  numerous  kinds  of  berries), 
plunged  overhead  in  a  glutinous  syrup,  contained  within  a  skin  or  bladder ;  at 
other  times  (as  in  apples  and  pears)  embedded  in  the  heart  of  a  firm  fleshy 
substance ;  or  (as  in  strawberries)  pricked  into  the  surface  of  a  soft  pulp. 

These  and  many  more  varieties  exist  in  what  we  call  fruits.  In  pulse,  and 
grain,  and  grasses ;  seeds  (as  in  the  pea  tribe)  regularly  disposed  in  parchment 
pods,  which,  though  soft  and  membranous,  completely  exclude  the  wet  even  in 
the  heaviest  rains;  the  pod  also,  not  seldom,  (as  in  the  bean),  lined  with  a  fine 
down;  at  other  times  (as  in  the  senna)  distended  like  a  blown  bladder ;  or  we 
have  the  seed  enveloped  in  wool  (as  in  the  cotton-plant),  lodged  (as  in  pines) 
between  the  hard  and  compact  scales  of  a  cone,  or  barricadoed  (as  in  the 
artichoke  and  thistle)  with  spikes  and  prickles ;  in  mushrooms,  placed  under  a 
pent-house ;  in  ferns,  within  slits  in  the  back  part  of  the  leaf;  or  (which  is  the 


THE   EEASON    WHY.  295 


And  J  will  send  grass  in  thy  fields  for  thy  cattle,  that  thou  mayest 
and  be  full."— DEUTERONOMY  xi. 


most  general  organisation  of  all)  we  find  them  covered  by  strong,  close  tunicles, 
and  attached  to  the  stem  according  to  an  order  appiopriated  to  each  plant,  as 
is  seen  in  the  several  kinds  of  grains  and  of  grasses. 

In  which  enumeration,  what  we  have  first  to  notice  is,  unity  of  purpose  under 
variety  of  expedients.  Nothing  can  be  more  single  than  the  design;  more 
diversified  than  the  means.  Pellicles,  shells,  pulps,  pods,  husks,  skin,  scales 
armed  with  thorns,  are  all  employed  in  prosecuting  the  same  intention. 
Secondly ;  we  may  observe,  that  in  all  these  cases,  the  purpose  is  fulfilled  within 
a  just  and  limited  degree.  We  can  perceive,  that  if  the  seeds  of  plants  were 
more  strongly  guarded  than  they  are,  their  greater  security  would  interfere  with 
other  uses.  Many  species  of  animals  would  suffer,  and  many  perish,  if  they  could 
not  obtain  access  to  them.  The  plant  would  overrun  the  soil ;  or  the  seed  be 
wasted  for  want  of  room  to  sow  itself.  It  is,  sometimes,  as  necessary  to  destroy 
particular  species  of  plants,  as  it  is,  at  other  times,  to  encourage  their  growth . 
Here,  as  in  many  cases,  a  balance  is  to  be  maintained  between  opposite  uses.  The 
provisions  for  the  preservation  of  seeds  appear  to  be  directed,  chiefly  against 
the  inconstancy  of  the  elements,  or  the  sweeping  destruction  of  inclement 
seasons.  The  depredation  of  animals,  and  the  injuries  of  accidental  violence,  are 
allowed  for  in  the  abundance  of  the  increase.  The  result  is,  that  out  of  the 
many  thousand  different  plants  which  cover  the  earth,  not  a  single  species, 
perhaps,  has  been  lost  since  the  creation. 

When  nature  has  perfected  her  seeds,  her  next  care  is  to  disperse  them. 
The  seed  cannot  answer  its  purpose,  while  it  remains  confined  in  the  capsule. 
After  the  seeds  therefore  are  ripened,  the  pericarpium  opens  to  let  them  out, 
and  the  opening  is  not  like  an  accidental  bursting,  but  for  the  most  part,  is 
according  to  a  certain  rule  in  each  plant.  What  I  have  always  thought  very 
extraordinary;  nuts  and  shells,  which  we  can  hardly  crack  with  our  teeth, 
divide  and  make  way  for  the  little  tender  sprout  which  proceeds  from  the 
kernel.  Handling  the  nut,  I  could  hardly  conceive  how  the  plantule  was  ever  to 
get  out  of  it.  There  are  cases,  it  is  said,  in  which  the  seed-vessel,  by  en  elastic  jerk, 
at  the  moment  of  its  explosion,  casts  the  seeds  to  a  distance.  We  all,  however, 
know,  that  many  seeds  (those  of  most  composite  flowers,  as  of  the  thistle,  dande- 
lion, &c.)  are  endowed  with  what  are  not  improperly  called  wings;  that  is, 
downy  appendages,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  float  in  the  air,  and  are 
carried  oftentimes  by  the  wind  to  great  distances  from  the  plant  which  pro- 
duces them.  It  is  the  swelling  also  of  this  downy  tuft  within  the  seed-vessel 
that  seems  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  its  coats,  and  to  open  a  passage  for  the 
seed  to  escape. 

But  the  constitution  of  seeds  is  still  more  admirable  than  either  their 
preservation  or  their  dispersion.  In  the  body  of  the  seed  of  every  species 
of  plant,  or  nearly  of  every  one,  provision  is  made  for  two  grand  purposes : 
first,  for  the  safety  of  the  germ ;  secondly,  for  the  temporary  support  of  the 
future  plant.  The  sprout,  as  folded  up  in  the  seed,  is  delicate  and  brittle 
beyond  any  other  substance.  It  cannot  be  touched  without  being  broken. 

Yet  in  beans,  peas,  grass-seeds,  grain,  fruits,  it  is  so  fenced  on  all  sides, 
so  shut  up  and  protected,  that  whilst  the  seed  itself  is  rudely  handled, 
tossed  into  sacks,  shovelled  into  heaps,  the  sacred  particle,  the  miniature  plant 
remains  unhurt.  It  is  wonderful,  also,  how  long  many  kinds  of  seeds,  by  the 
ielp  of  their  integuments,  and  perhaps  of  their  oils,  stand  out  against  decay. 
A  grain  of  mustard-seed  has  been  known  to  lie  in  the  earth  for  a  hundred 


296  THE   BEA8ON    WHY 


"  Say  not  ye,  There  are  four  months,  and  then  cometh  harvest  ?  behold,  I  say 

unto  you,  Lift  up  your  eyes,  and  look  on  the  fields ;  for  they  are  white 

already  to  harvest."— JOHN  iv. 

years;  and  as  soon  as  it  had  acquired  a  favourable  situation,  to  shoot  as 
vigorously  as  if  just  gathered  from  the  plant.  Then,  as  to  the  second  point,  the 
temporary  support  of  the  future  plant,  the  matter  stands  thus.  In  grain,  and 
pulse,  and  kernels,  and  pipins,  the  germ  composes  a  very  small  part  of  the 
seed.  The  rest  consists  of  a  nutritious  substance,  from  which  the  sprout  draws 
its  aliment  for  some  considerable  time  after  it  is  put  forth ;  viz.,  until  the 
fibres,  shot  out  from  the  other  end  of  the  seed,  are  able  to  imbibe  j  uices  from 
the  earth,  in  a  sufficient  quantity  for  its  demand.  It  is  owing  to  this  constitu- 
tion that  we  see  seeds  sprout,  and  the  sprouts  make  a  considerable  progress, 
without  any  earth  at  all. 

From  the  conformation  of  fruits  alone,  one  might  be  led,  even  without  ex- 
perience, to  suppose,  that  part  of  this  provision  was  destined  for  the  utilities  of 
animals.  As  limited  to  the  plant,  the  provision  itself  seems  to  go  beyond  its 
object.  The  flesh  of  an  apple,  the  pulp  of  an  orange,  the  meat  of  a  plum,  the 
fatness  of  the  olive,  appear  to  be  more  than  sufficient  for  the  nourishing  of  the 
seed  or  kernel.  The  event  shows,  that  this  redundancy,  if  it  be  one,  ministers  to 
the  support  and  gratification  of  animal  natures ;  and  when  we  observe  a  provi- 
sion to  be  more  than  sufficient  for  one  purpose,  yet  wanted  for  another  purpose, 
it  is  not  unfair  to  conclude  that  both  purposes  were  contemplated  together.— 
Paley. 

1173.  Why  have  climbing  plants  tough  curly  tendrils? 
Because,  having  no  woody  stalks  of  their  own  to  support  them, 

they  require  to  take  hold  of  surrounding  objects,  and  raise  them- 
selves from  the  ground  by  climbing.  Their  spiral  tendrils  are, 
therefore,  so  many  hands,  assisting  them  to  rise  from  the  earth. 

1174.  Why  does  the  pea  put  forth  tendrils,  and  the  lean 
not? 

Because  the  bean  has  in  its  stalk  sufficient  woody  fibre  to  support 
itself,  but  the  pea  has  not.  We  do  not  know  a  single  tree  or  shrub 
having  a  firm  strong  stem  sufficient  for  its  support  which  is  also 
supplied  with  tendrils. 

1175.  Why  do  the  ears  of  wheat  stand  up  by  day,  and  turn 
down  ly  night  ? 

Because,  when  the  ear  is  becoming  ripe,  the  cold  dew  falling  into 
the  ear,  might  induce  blight;  the  ears  therefore  turn  down  to  the 
earth,  and  receive  warmth  by  radiation. 

1176.  Why   have  grasses,   corn,    canes,   fyc.,  joints,   or 
knots  in  their  stalks. 

Because  a  long  hollow  stem  would  be  liable  to  bend  and  break. 
But  the  joints  are  so  many  points  where  the  fibres  are  bound 
together,  and  the  structure  greatly  strengthened 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  297 

"Then  shall  the  earth  yield  her  increase;  and  God,  even  our  own  God,  shall 
bless  us."— PSALM;  XLVII. 


1177.  Why  have  the  berries  of  the  mistletoe  a  thick  viscid 
juice  ? 

Because  the  mistletoe  is  a  parasitical  plant,  growing  upon  the 
bark  of  other  trees.  It  will  not  grow  in  the  ground ;  its  seeds  are 
therefore  filled  with  an  exceedingly  sticky  substance,  which  serves  to 
attach  them  to  the  bark  of  trees,  to  which  the  berries  attach  them- 
selves at  once,  by  throwing  out  tough  fibres  ;  and  the  next  year  the 
plant  grows. 


Fig.  75.— THE  MISTLETOE. 

1178.  Sow  are  the  seeds  of  the  mistletoe  transferred  from 
its  own  stem  to  the  bark  of  trees. 

Various  birds,  and  particularly  the  missel  thrush,  feed  upon  the 
berries.  As  the  bird  moves  in  pursuit  of  its  food,  the  viscid  berries 
attach  themselves  to  its  feathers,  and  in  this  way  the  thrush  is  the 
instrument  which  conveys  the  seed  to  the  spot  to  which  it  adheres, 
and  from  which  the  tree  ultimately  grows. 

1179.  What  is  the  circulation  of  the  sap  in  plants  ? 

The  circulation  of  the  sap  is  the  movement  of  the  nutritive  juices 
by  which  the  plant  is  sustained.    There  is  a  slow  uninterrupted 
13* 


298  THE    REASON    WHY. 


"  For  the  sun  is  no  sooner  arisen  with  a  burning  heat,  but  it  withereth  the  grass, 

and  the  flower  thereof  falleth,  and  the  grace  of  the  fashion  of  it  perisheth : 

so  also  shall  the  rich  man  fade  away  in  his  ways." — JAMES  i. 

movement  of  the  sap  from  the  root  through  the  stems  to  the  leaves, 
and  downwards  from  the  leaves  through  the  bark  to  the  root. 

1180.  Why   does  the    sap   of  plants   thus   ascend  and 
descend  ? 

Because  it  conveys  upward  from  the  ground  some  of  the  matter 
by  which  the  plant  is  to  be  nourished,  and  which  must  undergo 
digestion  in  the  leaves ;  and  it  brings  downward  from  the  leaves 
the  matters  absorbed,  for  the  nourishment  of  the  plant,  and  dis- 
charges through  -the  root  the  substances  which  the  plant  cannot  use. 

The  movement  of  the  sap  is  most  active  in  the  spring ;  but  in 
the  depths  of  the  winter  it  almost  ceases. 

There  are  other  motions  of  the  sap  in  plants,  whioh  are  called  special,  in 
distinction  from  the  ascending  and  descending  of  the  sap,  which  is  called 
general,  or  common  to  all  plants.  The  special  movements  of  the  sap  are 
peculiar  to  certain  plants,  in  some  of  which  a  fluid,  full  of  little  green  cells,  is 
found  to  have  a  rotatory  motion ;  in  other  plants,  a  milky  fluid  is  found  to 
move  through  particular  tissues  of  the  vegetable  structure. 

1181.  Why  are  the  leaves  of  plants  green  ? 

Because  they  secrete  a  carbonaceous  matter,  named  chlorophyl, 
from  which  they  derive  their  green  colour. 

1182.  Why  are  the  hearts  of  cabbages,  lettuces,  Sfc.,  of  a 
pale  yellow  colour  ? 

Because  the  action  of  light  is  necessary  to  the  formation  of 
chlorophyl ;  and  as  the  leaves  are  folded  upon  each  other,  they 
exclude  the  light,  and  the  green  matter  is  not  formed. 

1183.  Why  do  leaves  turn  brown  in  the  autumn  ? 

Because,  when  their  power  of  decomposing  the  air  declines,  the 
oxygen  absorbed  in  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  lodges  in  the  leaf, 
imparting  to  it  a  red  or  brown  colour. 

1184.  Why   do   succulent  fruits,   such    as    gooseberries, 
plums,  fyc.,  taste  acid  ? 

Because,  in  the  formation  of  juices,  a  considerable  amount  of 
oxygen  is  absorbed,  and  the  oxygen  imparts  acidity  to  the  taste. 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  299 


1  The  earth  is  full  of  the  goodness  of  the  Lord."— PSALM  xxxm. 


1185.  Why  do  ripe  fruits  taste  sweet,  and  unripe  fruits 
taste  sour  ? 

Because  the  juices  of  the  ripe  fruit  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
sugar,  which  in  the  unripe  fruit  has  not  been  formed. 

1186.  Why  do  some  leaves  turn  yellow  ? 

Because  they  retain  an  excess  of  nitrogen.  Leaves  undergoing 
decay  turn  either  yellow,  red,  crimson,  or  violet.  Yellow  is  due  to 
the  excess  of  nitrogen ;  red  and  crimson  to  various  proportions  of 
oxygen ;  violet  to  a  mixture  of  carbon ;  and  green  to  chlorophyl. 

1187.  Why  do  leaves  fall  off  in  the  autumn  ? 

Because  they  have  supplied  for  a  season  the  natural  wants  of  the 
tree.  Every  part  has  received  nutrition  through  the  spring  and 
summer  months ;  and  the  wants  of  the  tree  being  supplied,  the 
chief  use  of  the  leaf  ceases,  and  it  falls  to  the  ground  to  decay,  and 
enrich  the  soil. 

1188.  Why  do  plants  suffer  from  the  smoke  of  cities  ? 
Because  the  smoke  injures  the  porous  structure  of  the  leaves, 

and  interferes  with  their  free  respiration. 


LESSOIT    LXI. 

1189.   Wliy  are  vegetable  productions  so  widely  diffused  ? 

Because  they  everywhere  form  the  food  of  the  animal  creation, 
Without  them,  neither  man  nor  beast  could  exist.  Even  the  flesh- 
eating  animals  are  sustained  by  them,  since  they  live  by  preying 
upon  the  bodies  of  vegetable -eaters. 

They  also  enrich  and  beautify  the  earth.  They  present  the  most 
charming  diversities  of  proportions  and  features.  From  the 
cowslip,  the  primrose,  and  the  blue-bell  of  our  childish  days,  to 
the  broad  oak  under  which  we  recline,  while  children  gambol  round 
us,  they  are  all  beautiful  or  sublime,  and  eminently  useful  in 
countless  ways  to  man. 

They  spread  a  carpet  over  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  they  cling  to 
old  ruins,  and  c!  ver  hard  rocks,  as  though  they  would  hide  decay,  and 


300  THE    SEASON   WHY. 


"The  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  endure  for  ever:  the  Lord  shall  rejoice  in  his 
works."— PSALM  civ. 

give  warmth  to  the  coldness  of  stone.  In  tropical  climates  they 
supply  rich  fruits  full  of  cool  and  refreshing  juices,  and  they 
fcpread  out  upon  the  crests  of  tall  trees  those  broad  leaves  which 
shelter  the  native  from  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun. 

They  supply  our  dwellings  with  furniture  of  every  kind,  from 
the  plain  deal  table,  to  the  handsome  cabinet  of  satin  or  rosewood ; 
they  afford  rich  perfumes  to  the  toilette,  and  luscious  fruits  and 
wines  lo  the  desert ;  they  charm  the  eye  of  the  child  in  the  daised 
field;  they  adorn  the  brow  of  the  bride ;  they  are  laid  in  the  coffin 
with  the  dead ;  and,  as  the  cypress  or  the  willow  bend  over  our 
graves,  they  become  the  emblems  of  our  grief. 

1190.  What  is  mahogany  ? 

Mahogany  is  the  wood  of  trees  brought  chiefly  from  South 
America  and  Spain.  The  finest  kind  is  imported  from  St.  Domingo, 
and  an  inferior  kind  from  Honduras. 

We  all  keow  the  beauty  of  mahogany  wood.  But  we  do  not  all  know  that 
mahogany  was  first  employed  in  the  repair  of  some  of  Sir 'Walter  Raleigh's  ships 
at  T:  inidad  in  1597.  The  discovery  of  the  beauty  of  its  grain  for  furniture  and 
cabinet  work  was  accidental.  Dr.  Gibbons,  a  physician  of  eminence,  was  build- 
ing a  house  m  King-street,  Covent-garden ;  his  brother,  captain  of  a  West 
Indiaman.  had  brought  over  some  planks  of  mahogany  as  ballast,  and  he  thought 
that  the  wood  might  bd  used  up  in  his  brother's  building,  but  the  carpenters 
found  the  wood  too  hard  for  their  tools,  and  objected  to  use  it.  Mrs.  Gibbons 
shortly  afterwards  wanted  a  small  box  made,  so  the  doctor  called  upon  his 
cabinet-maker,  and  ordsred  him  to  make  a  box  out  of  some  wood  that  lay  in  his 
garden.  The  cabinet-maker  also  complained  that  the  wood  was  too  hard.  But 
the  doctor  insisted  upon  its  being  used,  as  he  wished  to  preserve  it  as  a  memento 
of  his  brother.  When  the  box  was  completed,  its  fine  colour  and  polish  attracted 
much  attention ;  and  he,  therefore,  ordered  a  bureau  to  be  made  of  it.  This  was 
done,  and  it  presented  so  fine  an  appearance  that  the  cabinet-maker  invited 
numerous  persons  to  see  it,  before  it  was  sent  home.  Among  the  visitors  was  her 
Grace  the  Duchess  of  Buckingham,  who  immediately  begged  some  of  the  wood 
from  Mr.  Gibbons,  and  employed  the  cabinet-maker  to  make  her  a  bureau 
also.  Mahogany  from  this  time  became  a  fashionable  wood,  and  the  cabinet- 
milker,  who  at  first  objected  to  use  it,  made  a  great  success  by  its  introduction. 

1191.  What  is  rosewood  ? 

Rosewood  is  the  wood  of  a  tree  which  grows  in  Brazil.  It  is, 
generally  speaking,  too  dark  lor  large  articles  of  furniture,  but  is 
admirably  adapted  for  smaller  ones.  It  is  expensive,  and  the 
hardness  of  the  wood  renders  the  cost  of  making  articles  of  it 
very  high. 


THE   SEASON    WHY.  301 


"  I  am  come  up  to  the  height  of  the  mountains,  to  the  sides  of  Lebanon,  and  will 

cut  down  the  tall  cedars  thereof,  and  the  choice  fir  trees  thereof." — 

ii.  KINGS  xxin. 


Respecting  the  other  woods  used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  we  havo 
nothing  special  to  say,  except  of  the  oak— the  emblem  of  our  native  land.  This 
tree  yields  a  most  useful  and  durable  wood,  and  as  it  not  only  defends  our 
country  by  supplying  our  "wooden  walls,"  but  gives  to/us  the  floors  of  our 
houses,  furnishes  our  good  substantial  tables,  and  comfortable  arui-trhairs.it 
will  be  well  for  us  to  know  a  few  facts  about  this  celebrated  tree.  It  is  sai<l 
that  there  are  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  species  of  the  oak.  The 
importance  of  the  growth  of  oaks  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact,  that  tho 
building  of  a  70-guu  ship  would  take  forty  acres  of  timber.  The  building  of  a 
70-gun  ship  is  estimated  to  cost  about  £70,000.  Oak  trees  attain  to  the  age  of 
1,000  years.  The  oak  enlarges  its  circumference  from  10$  inches  to  12  inches  in 
a  year.  The  interior  of  a  great  oak  at  Allonville,  in  Normandy,  h^j  been 
converted  into  a  place  of  worship.  An  oak  at  Kiddington,  served  as  a  village 
prison.  A  large  oak  at  Sa,lcey,  was  used  as  a  cattle  fold ;  and  others  have  served 
as  tanks,  tombs,  prisons,  and  dwelling-houses. 

The  Mammoth  tree,  which  is  exhibiting  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  is  one  of  the 
great  wonders  of  the  vegetable  creation.  It  is  the  grand  monarch  of  the 
Californian  forest,  inhabiting  a  solitary  district  on  the  elevated  slopes  of  th.i 
Sierra  Nevada,  at  5,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  From  80  to  90  trees  exist,  all 
within  the  circuit  of  a  mile,  and  these  varying  from  250  to  321)  feet  in  height, 
and  from  10  to  20  feet  iu  diameter.  The  bark  is  from  12  to  15  inches  in 
thickness;  the  branchlets  are  somewhat  pendent,  and  resemble  those  of 
cypress  or  juniper,  and  it  has  the  cones  of  a  pine.  Of  a  tree  felled  in  1853, 
21  feet  of  the  bark  from  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk  were  put  in  the  natural  form 
as  a  room,  which  would  contain  a  piano,  with  seats  for  forty  persons ;  and  on  one 
occasion  150  children  were  admitted.  The  tree  is  reputed  to  have  been  above 
3,000  years  old ;  that  is  to  say,  it  must  have  been  a  little  plant  when  Samson 
was  slaying  the  Philistines.  The  portion  of  the  tree  exhibiting  at  the  palace  is 
1 03  feet  in  height,  and  32  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base. 

1192.   What  is  tea  ? 

Tea  is  the  leaf  of  a  shrub  (Thea  CJiinensis}.  The  plant  usually 
grows  to  the  height  of  from  three  to  six  feet,  and  resembles  in 
appearance  the  well-known  myrtle.  It  bears  a  blossom  not  unlike 
that  of  the  common  dog-rose.  The  climate  most  congenial  to  it  is 
that  between  the  25th  and  33rd  degrees  of  latitude.  The  growth  of 
good  tea  prevails  chiefly  in  China,  and  is  confined  to  a  few  provinces. 
The  green  and  black  teas  are  mere  varieties,  depending  upon  the 
culture,  time  of  gathering,  mode  of  drying,  &c.  Coffee  was  used 
in  this  country  before  tea.  In  1664,  it  is  recorded,  the  East  India 
Company  bought  21b.  2oz.  of  coffee  as  a  present  for  the  king.  In 
the  year  1832,  there  were  101,687  licensed  tea  dealers  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  Green  tea  was  first  used  in  1715.  A  dispute 
with  America  about  the  duty  upon  tea  led  to  the  American  war,  out 
of  which  arose  American  independence.  The  consumption  of  tea 


302  THE   REASON    WHY. 

44  Erery  man  should  eat  and  drink,  and  enjoy  the  good  of  all  his  labour,  it  ii 
the  gift  of  God."  -ECCLESIASTES  in. 

throughout  the  whole  world  is  estimated  at  above  52,000,000  Ibs., 
of  which  the  consumption  of  Great  Britain  alone  amounts  to 
30,000,000.  (See  1225). 

1193.  What  is  coffee  ? 

Coffee  is  the  berry  of  the  coffee  plant,  which  was  a  native  of  that 
part  of  Arabia  called  Yemen,  but  it  is  now  extensively  cultivated  in 
India,  Java,  the  West  Indies,  Brazil,  &c.  (See  1224). 

The  first  coffee-house  iu  London  was  opened  in  1652,  under  the  following 
circumstances.  A  Turkey  merchant  named  Edwards,  having  brought  along 
with  linn  from  the  Levant,  some  bags  of  coffee,  and  a  Greek  servant  who  was 
skilful  in  making  it,  his  house  was  thronged  with  visitors  to  see  and  taste  this 
new  beverage.  Being  desirous  to  gratify  his  friends  without  putting  himself 
to  inconvenience,  he  allowed  his  servant  to  open  a  coffee-houre,  and  to  sell 
coffee  publicly. 

Here  we  have  another  illustration  of  the  great  results  springing  from  trifling 
causes.  Coffee  soon  became  so  extensively  used  that  taxes  were  imposed  upon 
it.  -In  1660  a  duty  of  4d.  a  gallon  was  imposed  upon  all  coffee  made  and  sold. 
Hefore  1732  the  duty  upon  coffee  was  2s.  a  pound ;  it  was  afterwards  reduced  to 
Is.  <5d.,  at  which  it  yielded  to  the  revenue,  for  many  years,  £10,000  per  annum. 
The  duty  has  been  gradually  reduced,  and  the  consumption  has  gone  on 
increasing,  until  at  last  above  25,000,000  of  pounds  are  consumed  annually! 
Fancy  this  great  result  springing  from  a  "  friendly  coffee  party"  that  assembled 
in  the  year  1652. 

1194.  What  is  chocolate  ? 

It  is  a  cake  prepared  from  the  cocoa-nut.  The  nut  is  first 
roasted  like  coffee,  then  it  is  reduced  to  powder  and  mixed  with 
water,  the  paste  is  then  put  into  moulds  and  hardened.  The 
properties  are  very  healthful,  but  its  consumption  is  very  insignifi- 
cant, as  compared  with  tea  or  coffee.  The  cocoa  tree  grows  chiefly 
in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America. 

1195.  What  is  cocoa  ? 

Cocoa  is  also  a  preparation  from  the  seeds  or  beans  of  the  cocoa 
tree.  But  the  best  form  of  cocoa  for  family  use  is  to  obtain  the 
beans  pure,  as  they  are  now  commonly  sold  ready  for  use,  and  to 
break  them  and  then  grind  them  in  a  large  coffee  mill. 

1106,   W  hat  is  chicory  ? 

Chicory  is  the  root  of  the  common  endive,  dried  and  roasted  as 
coffee,  for  which  it  is  used  as  a  substitute.  Some  persons  prefer 
the  flavour  of  chicory  admixed  with  coffee.  But  very  opposite 


THE   BEASON   WHY.  303 


"  He  that  tilleth  the  land  shall  have  plenty  of  bread :  but  he  that  followeth  after 
vain  persons  shall  have  poverty  enough."— PBOVEBBS  xxvm. 


opinions  prevail  respecting  the  qualities  of  chicory.  We  belive  it 
to  be  perfectly  healthful,  and  attribute  the  prejudice  that  prevails 
against  it,  to  its  having  been  used,  from  its  cheapness,  to  adulterate 

coffee. 

1197.  What  is  sugar? 

Sugar  is  a  sweet  granulated  substance,  which  may  be  derived 
from  many  vegetable  substances,  but  the  chief  source  of  which  is 
the  sugar  cane.  The  other  chief  sources  that  supply  it  are  the 
maple,  beet-root,  birch,  parsnip,  &c.  It  is  extensively  used  all  over 
the  world.  Sugar  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient 
Jews.  It  was  found  in  the  East  Indies  by  Newcheus,  Admiral  of 
Alexander,  325  B.C.  It  was  brought  into  Europe  from  Asia. 

The  art  of  sugar  refining  was  first  practised  in  England,  in  1659,  and  sugar 
was  first  taxed  by  name  by  James  II.,  1 685.  Sugar  is  derived  from  the  "West 
Indies,  Brazil,  Surinam,  Java,  Mauritius,  Bengal,  Siam,  the  Isle  de  Bourbon, 
&c.  &c.  Before  the  introduction  of  sugar  to  this  country,  honey  was  the  chief 
substance  employed  in  making  sweet  dishes ;  and  long  after  the  introduction  of 
sugar  it  was  used  only  in  the  houses  of  the  rich.  The  consumption  in  England 
in  1700  reached  only  10,000  tons ;  in  1834.  it  had  reached  180,000  tons.  The 
English  took  possession  of  the  West  Indies  in  1672,  and  in  1646  began  to  export 
sugar.  In  1676  it  is  recorded  that  400  vessels,  averaging  150  tons,  were 
employed  in  the  sugar  trade  of  Barbadoes.  Jamaica  was  discovered  by 
Columbus,  and  was  occupied  by  the  Spaniards,  from  whom  it  was  taken  by 
Cromwell,  in  1656,  and  has  since  continued  in  our  own  possession.  When  it  was 
conquered  there  were  only  three  sugar  plantations  upon  it.  But  they  rapidly 
increased.  Until  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  West  Indies,  the  production  of 
sugar  was  almost  exclusively  limited  to  slave  labour.  (See  1226). 

1198.  What  is  wheat? 

Wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  millet,  and  maize,  all  belong  to  tho 
natural  order  of  grain-bearing  plants.  They  all  grow  in  a  similar 
manner,  and  all  yield  starch,  gluten,  and  a  certain  amount  of  phos- 
phates. They  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  farinaceous  foods. 

From  tho  Sacred  writings  we  learn  that  unleavened- bread  was  common  in  the 
days  of  Abraham.  In  the  earlier  periods  of  our  own  history,  people  h^  no  other 
method  of  making  bread  than  by  roasting  corn,  and  beating  it  in  mortars,  then 
wetting  it  into  a  kind  of  coarse  cake.  In  1596,  rye  bread  and  oatmeal  formed  a 
considerable  part  of  the  diet  of  servants,  even  in  great  families.  In  the  time  of 
Charles  tlis  First,  barley  bread  was  the  chief  food  of  the  people.  In  many  parts 
of  England  it  was  more  the  custom  to  make  bread  at  home  then  at  present.  In 
1804,  there  was  not  a  single  public  baker  in  Manchester.  In  France,  when  the 
use  of  yeast  was  first  introduced,  it  was  deemed  by  the  faculty  of  medicine  to  be 
so  injurious  to  health  that  its  use  was  prohibited  under  tho  severest  penalties 


304  THE    REASON    WHY 


**  I  clotlied  theo  also  with  broidered  work,  and  shod  thee  with  badgers'  skin, 
and  I  girded  thce  about  with  fine  linen,  and  I  covered  thee  with  silk."— 

EZEKIEL  XVI. 


Herault  says  that,  during  the  siege  of  Paris  by  Henry  the  Fourth,  a  famine 
raged,  and  bread  sold  at  a  crown  a  pound.  When  this  was  consumed,  the  dried 
bones  from  the  charnel  house  of  the  Holy  Innocents  were  exhumed,  and  a  kind 
of  bread  made  therefrom.  Bread-street,  in  London,  was  once  a  bread  market. 
From  the  year  1265,  it  had  been  customary  to  regulate  by  law  the  price  of  brea-.l 
in  proportion  to  the  price  of  wheat  or  flour  at  the  time.  This  was  called  tlio 
assize  of  bread ;  but,  in  1815,  it  was  abolished.  In  the  year  272  there  was  a 
famine  in  Britain  so  severe  that  people  ate  the  bark  of  trees ;  forty  thou  .arid 
persons  perished  by  famine  in  England  in  310  !  In  the  year  450  there  was  a 
famine  in  Italy  so  dreadful  that  people  eat  their  own  children.  A  famine,  com- 
mencing in  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland,  in  954,  lasted  four  years.  A  famine  in 
England  and  France,  in  1193,  led  to  a  pestilential  fever,  which  lasted  until  1195- 
In  1315  there  was  again  a  dreadful  famine  in  England,  during  which  people 
devoured  the  flesh  of  horses,  dogs,  cats,  and  vermin !  In  the  year  1775,  16,000 
people  died  of  famine  in  the  Cape  de  Verds.  These  are  only  a  few  of  the  remark- 
able famines  that  have  occurred  in  the  course  of  history.  Let  us  thank  God 
that  we  live  in  times  of  abundance,  when  improved  cultivation,  the  pursuit  of 
industry,  and  the  settlement  of  the  laws,  render  such  a  calamity  as  a  famine 
almost  an  impossibility. 

1199.  What  is  cotton? 

Cotton  is  a  species  of  vegetable  wool,  produced  by  the  cotton 
shrub,  called,  botanically,  G-ossypium  herbaceum,  of  which  there  are 
numerous  varieties  It  grows  naturally  in  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America,  and  is  cultivated  largely  for  purposes  of  commerce. 

The  precise  time  when  the  cotton  manufacture  was  introduced  into  England  is 
unknown ;  but  probably  it  was  not  before  the  17th  century.  Since  then,  what 
wonderful  advances  have  been  made !  The  cotton  trade  and  manufacture  have 
become  a  vast  source  of  British  industry,  and  of  commerce  between  nations.  It 
was  some  years  ago  calculated  that  the  cotton  manufacture  yielded  to  Great 
Britain  one  thousand  millions  sterling.  The  names  of  Hargreaves,  Arkwright, 
Crompton,  Cartwright,  and  others,  have  become  immortalised  by  their  inventions 
for  the  improvement  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton  fabrics.  Little  more  than 
half  a  century  has  passed  since  the  British  cotton  manufactory  was  in  its  infancy 
—  now  it  engages  many  millions  of  capital — keeps  millions  of  work  people 
employed;  freights  thousands  of  ships  that  are  ever  crossing  and  re-crossing 
the  seas  ;  and  binds  nations  together  in  ties  of  mutual  interest.  The  present 
yearly  value  of  cotton  manufactures  in  Great  Britain  is  estimated  at  £34,000,000. 
About  £6,014,000  of  the  above  sum  is  distributed  yearly  among  working  people 
as  wages. 

1200.  What  is  silk? 

Silk,  though  not  directly  a  vegetable  product,  is,  nevertheless, 

indirectly  derived  from  the  vegetable  creation,  since  it  is  a  thread 

spun  by  the  silk -worm  from  matter  which  the  worm  derives  from 

the  mulberry  leaf. 

Silk  is  •uppMed  by  various  parts  of  the  world,  including  China,  the  East 


THE   EEASON    WHY.  305 


"  And  there  was  a  man  in  Maon,  whose  possessions  were  in  Carmel ;  and  the 

mau  was  very  great,  and  ho  had  three  thousand  sheep,  and  a  thousand  goats : 

and  he  was  shearing  his  sheep  in  Carmel." — I  SAMUEL  xxv. 

Indies,  Turkey,  &c.,  where  the  silk-worm  has  been  found  to  thrive.  The  attempts 
that  have  been  hitherto  made  to  cultivate  it  in  this  country  have  proved 
unsuccessful.  At  Rome,  in  the  time  of  Tiberius,  a  law  passed  the  senate  which, 
as  well  as  prohibiting  the  wearing  of  massive  gold  jewels,  also  forbade  the  men 
to  debase  themselves  by  wearing  silk.  There  was  a  time  when  silk  was  of  the 
same  value  as  gold — weight  for  weight — and  it  was  thought  to  grow  upon  trees. 
It  is  recorded  that  silk  mantles  were  worn  by  some  noble  ladies  at  a  ball  at 
Kenilworth  Castle,  1286.  It  was  first  manufactured  in  England  in  1604.  In  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  manufacture  of  silk  in  England  made  rapid  strides.  In 
1666,  there  were  40,000  persons  engaged  in  the  silk  trade.  The  silk  throwsters 
of  the  metropolis  were  enrolled  in  a  fellowship  in  1562,  and  were  incorporated 
in  1629.  In  1635,  a  considerable  impetus  was  given  to  the  English  silk  manu- 
factures. Louis  the  Fourteenth  of  France  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes.  The 
edict  of  Nantes  was  promulgated  by  Henry  the  Fourth  of  France  in  1598.  It 
pave  to  the  Protestants  of  France  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  Louis 
the  Fourteenth  revoked  this  edict  in  1685,  and  thereby  drove  the  Pro- 
testants as  refugees  to  England,  Holland,  and  parts  of  Germany,  where  they 
established  various  manufactures.  Many  of  these  French  refugees  settled  in 
Spitalfields,  and  there  founded  extensive  manufactories,  which  soon  rivalled 
those  of  their  own  country ;  and  thus  the  intolerance  of  the  king  was  justly 
punished.  What  important  facts  we  see  connected  with  the  simple  thread  of 
the  silk-worm ! 

1201.  What  is  wool? 

Wool  is  a  kind  of  soft  hair  or  coarse  down,  produced  by  various 
Animals,  but  chiefly  by  sheep. 

This  is  another  of  the  useful  productions  of  nature,  for  which  we  are 
Indirectly  indebted  to  the  vegetable  kingdom ;  for  were  it  not  for  the  rich 
pastures  forming  the  green  carpet  of  the  earth,  it  would  be  impossible  for  man 
to  keep  large  flocks  of  sheep  for  the  production  of  wool.  Wool,  like  the  hair  of 
most  animals,  completes  its  growth  in  a  year,  and  then  exhibits  a  tendency  to 
fall  off.  For  the  production  of  wool  in  England  arid  Wales  it  has  been  estimated 
that  there  are  no  less  than  27,000,000  sheep  and  lambs;  and,  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  the  total  number  is  estimated  at  32,000,000.  Wool  was  not 
manufactured  in  any  quantity  in  England  until  1331,  when  the  weaving  of  it 
was  introduced  by  John  Kempe  and  other  artizans  from  Flanders.  The  expo,  - 
tation  or  non -exportation  of  wool  has  from  time  to  time  formed  a  vexed  subject 
for  legislators.  Woollen  clothes  were  made  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  rcigu 
of  Julius  Caesar.  They  were  made  in  England  prior  to  1200.  Blankets  were 
first  made  in  England  in  1340.  The  art  of  dyeing  wools  was  first  introduced 
into  England  in  1608.  The  annual  value  of  the  raw  material  in  wool  is  set  down 
at  £6,000,000 ;  the  wages  of  workmen  engaged  in  the  wool  trade,  £9,600,000. 
The  number  of  people  employed  is  said  to  be  500,000. 

1202.  What  is  starch  ? 

Starch  is  one  of  the  most  useful  products  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  A*  a  rule,  a  vegetable,  if  nutritious  at  all,  is  so 


306  '     THE   REASON   WHY. 


'  Every  good  gift  and  every  perfect  gift  is  from  above,  and  cometh  down  from 

the  Father  of  lights,  with  whom  is  no  variableness,  neither  shadow 

of  turning."— JAMES  i. 


according  to  the  amount  of  starcli  which  it  contains.  It  is  most 
abundantly  found  in  the  seeds  of  plants,  and  especially  in  the 
wheat  tribe. 

It  is  also  met  with  in  the  cellular  tissues  of  plants,  and  especially 
in  such  underground  stems  as  the  potatoe,  carrot,  turnip,  Sfc.,  and 
the  stems  of  the  sago-palm  fig,  &c.  It  is  also  found  in  the  lark  of 
some  trees. 

1203,  Why  is  the  horse  chesnut,  though,  containing  a  great 
quantity  of  starch,  unfit  for  food? 

Because  (like  many  other  vegetable  productions)  it  contains  with 
the  starch  an  acrid  juice,  which  renders  it  unhealthy  j  and  although 
the  juice  can  be  separated  from  the  starch,  the  process  is  too 
expensive  to  be  made  generally  available. 

The  starch  which  is  used  for  domestic  purposes  is  an  artificial  preparation, 
and  does  not  properly  represent  the  starch  of  nutrition.  A  better  idea  of  it  is 
afforded  by  the  meal  of  a  flowery  potatoe.  The  starch  used  by  laundresses  is 
frequently  prepared  from  diseased  potatoes.  This  does  not  impair  the  quality 
of  the  starch,  for  the  purposes  of  the  laundress,  and  the  reason  why  potatoes 
that  are  diseased  are  thus  applied  is,  that  it  is  one  method  of  saving  some  part 
of  their  value.  The  finest  kinds  of  starch  are  prepared  from  rice.  It  is 
prepared  by  breaking  the  pulp,  and  disengaging  the  starch  from  the  cells ;  and 
it  is  then  put  through  other  processes  to  remove  the  fragments  of  the  broken 
cells.  But  in  the  flowery  meal  of  the  potatoe,  the  starch  cell  may  be  seen 
entire. 


CHAPTER    LXII. 

1204.   What  are  vegetable  oils  and  fats  ? 

Vegetable  oils  and  fats  constitute,  next  to  starch  and  sugar,  the 
most  important  secretion  of  the  vegetable  creation.  There  are  very 
few  plants  from  which  some  amount  of  oil  cannot  be  obtained ;  and 
those  which  are  famed  for  yielding  it  owe  their  celebrity  rather 
to  the  abundance  that  they  yield,  and  the  peculiar  qualities  of  their 
oil,  than  to  the  secretion  of  oil  being  rare — for  probably  there  is  no 
plant  without  it. 

Oil  is  most  commonly  found  in  seeds,  as  rape-seed,  linseed,  &c., 
but  it  is  found  also  in  leaves,  as  in  the  rose,  sweet-briar,  peppermint, 
&c.,  where  its  presence  may  be  recognised  by  the  distinguishing 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  307 

"  Ointment  and  perfume  rejoice  the  heart ;  so  doth  the  sweetness  of  a  man's 
friend  by  hearty  counsel."— PKOVEBBS  xxvu. 

perfume ;  and  it  is  also  found  in  the  wood  of  a  few  trees,  such  as  the 
sassafras  and  the  sandal- wood  j  the  bark  frequently  yields  an  oily 

secretion. 

The  London  and  North  "Western  Railway  Company  alone  use  about  60,000 
gallons  of  oil  yearly. 

1205.  Why  are  fat  and  oil  found  most  abundantly  in  the 
bodies  of  animals  in  cold  climates  ? 

Because  they  contribute  to  keep  the  bodies  of  animals  warm, 
not  only  by  their  non-conducting  property  keeping  in  the  heat  of 
the  aniinals,  but  by  supplying  carbon  abundantly  to  combine  with 
oxygen  during  respiration,  and  thereby  developing  animal  heat. 

1206.  Why    are  oil  and  fat-forming  trees  found  most 
abundantly  in  hot  climates  ? 

Because,  in  hot  countries,  the  formation  of  large  quantities  of  fat 
in  animal  bodies  would  oppress  living  creatures  with  heat ;  fats  and 
oils  are,  therefore,  produced  in  those  countries  chiefly  by  vegetables, 
and  are  used  externally  by  the  Asiatics  and  Africans  as  an  external 
unction  for  cooling  the  skin,  and  as  perfumes  which  give  inspiriting 
properties  to  the  air,  rendered  oppressive  by  excess  of  heat. 

1207.  Why  are  succulent  fruits  most  abundant  in  tropical 
climates  ? 

Because  they  are  rendered  necessary  in  those  climates  by  the 
excessive  heat,  and  are  found  to  have  a  most  beneficial  effect  in 
cooling,  purifying  the  blood  of  the  inhabitants  of  tropical  countries  ; 
while  the  grandeur  of  their  foliage,  and  the  richness  of  their  flowers, 
are  in  perfect  keeping  with  the  intensity  of  light  and  heat,  and 
serve,  by  throwing  dense  shades  over  the  earth,  to  cool  its  surface, 
and  to  offer  to  living  creatures  a  pleasant  retreat  from  the  rays  of 
the  burning  sun. 

The  following  sketch  of  Botanical  Geography  should,  be  read  attentively  after 
the  reader  has  gone  through  the  whole  of  the  Chapters  of  "  Reasons."  The 
technical  terms  employed  in  the  course  of  the  article  are  nearly  all  explained  at 
1212.  and  should  be  committed  to  memory  at  the  commencement  of  the  perusal. 
Mimosa  means  a  sensitive  plant ;  concentric  zones,  circular  lines  spreading  from 
a  centre ;  arborescent,  resembling  trees ;  Graminece,  grass-like.  The  botanical 
names  represent  individual  plants. 

1208.  \Vhen  treating  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  vegetables,  we  have  to 
mark  the  general  arrangements  indicated,  and  the  agencies  that  have  evidently 


308  THE    REASON   WHY. 

"Blessed  is  the  man  that  walketh  not  in  the  counsel  of  the  ungodly,  nor 
standeth  in  the  way  of  sinners,  nor  sitteth  in  the  seat  of  the  scornful : " 


operated  in  promoting  the  diffusion  of  floral  tribes.  Vegetation  occurs  over  tha 
whole  globe,  therefore,  under  the  most  opposite  conditions.  Plants  flourish  in 
the  bosom  of  the  ocean  as  well  as  on  land,  under  the  extremes  of  cold  and  heat 
in  polar  and  equatorial  regions,  on  the  hardest  rocks  and  the  soft  alluvium  uf 
the  plains,  amidst  the  perpetual  snow  of  lofty  mountains,  and  in  springs  at  tho 
temperature  of  boiling  water,  in  situations  never  penetrated  by  the  solar  rays, 
as  the  dark  vaults  of  caverns,  and  the  walls  of  mines,  as  well  as  freely  exposed. 
to  the  influences  of  light  and  air.  But  these  diverse  circumstances  hav« 
different  species  and  genera.  There  is  only  one  state  which  seems  fatal  to  tho 
existence  of  vegetable  life— the  entire  absence  of  humidity. 

1209.  By  species  we  understand  so  many  individuals  as  intimately  resemble 
each  other  in  appearance  and  properties,  and  agree  in  all  their  permanent 
characters,  which  are   founded  in  the  immutable  Laws  of  creation.     An 
established  species  may  frequently  exhibit  new  varieties,  depending  upon  local 
and  accidental  causes,  but  these  are  imperfectly,  or  for  a  limited  time,  if  at  all, 
perpetuated. 

1210.  A  genus  comprises  one  or  mere  species  similar  to  each  other,  but 
essentially  differing  in  formation,  nature,  and  in  many  adventitious  qualities 
from  other  plants.    A  tribe,  family,  group,  or  order,  comprises  several  genera. 

1211.  The  known  number   of  species  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  has  been 
gradually  enlarged  by  the  progress  of  maritime  and  inland  discovery;  bufc 
owing  to  great  districts  of  the  globe  not  having  yet  been  explored  by  the 
botanist,  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  Australia,  with  sections  of  Amerif-a,  Asia. 
and  Oceanica,  it  is  impossible  to  state  the  exact  amount.     The  successive 
augmentation  of  the  catalogue  appears  from  the  numbers  below : 

Species. 

Theophrastua 500 

Pliny 1,000 

Greek,  Roman,  and  Arabian  botanists         .       .     1,400 

Bauhin 6,000 

Linnaeus 8,800 

Persoon 27,000 

Humboldt  and  Brown 38,000 

DeCandolle    ....     .,   ',.     *.    '.  ;      .    '.       .   66,000 

Lindley       .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .    86,000 

Hinds.       .       .       ......       .       .       .    89,000 

1212.  Vegetable  forms  are  divided  into  three  great  classes  which    diiTer 
materially  in  their  structure:—!.  Cryptogamous  plants  — those  which  have 
no  flowers,  properly  so  called,  mosses,  lichens,  fungi,  and  ferns :  as  distinguished 
from  those  which   are  phaenogamous,  or  flower-bearing,  to  which  the  two 
following  classes  belong.    2.  Endogenous  plants,  which  have  stems  increasing 
from  within,  also  called  Monocotyledons,  from  having  only  one  seed-lobe,  as  tho 
numerous  grasses,  lilies,  and  the  palm  family.    3.  Exogenous  plants,  which 
have  stems  growing  by  additions  from  without,  also  called  Dicoteledons,  from 
the  seed  consisting  of  two  lobes,  the  most  perfect,  beautiful,  and  numerous 
class,  embracing  the  forest  trees,  and  most  flowering  shrubs  and  herds. 

1213.  The  exogens  furnish  examples  of  gigantic  size,  and  great  longevity.    In 
South  America  on  the  banks  of  the  Atabapo,  Humboldt  measured  a  Bombax 
eaiba  more  than  120  feet  high,  and  15  in  diaunetor ;  and  near  Cumana,  he  found 


THE   JiEASON    WHY.  309 


He  shall  oe  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water,  that  bringeth  forth  his 

fruit  in  season:  his  leaf  also  shall  riot  wither;  and  whatsoever  he  doeth 

shall  prosper," — PSALM  i. 


the  Zamang  del  Guayra,  a  species  of  mimosa,  the  pendant  branches  of  tho 
hemispherical  head  having  a  circumference  of  upwards  of  6i»0  feet.  ']  \M 
Adansonia,  or  baobab  of  Senegal,  though  attaining  no  great  height,  rarely  more 
than  fifty  feet,  has  a  trunk  with  a  diameter  sometimes  amounting  to  3i  feet  ; 
waile  the  Pinus  Lambertiana,  growing  singly  on  the  plains  west  of  the  Rorky 
Mountains,  has  been  found  250  feet  high,  60  feet  in  circumference  at  the  I..IM-, 
4'  feot  in  girth  at  the  height  of  190  feet,  yielding  cones  11  inches  round,  and  l*i 
long.  The  Ficus  Indicus,  or  banian  tree,  sending  out  shoots  from  its  horizontal 
branches,  which  reaching  the  ground  take  root,  and  form  new  stems  till  a 
single  tree  multiplies  almost  to  a  forest,  has  been  observed  covering  an  an  a  of 
1700  square  yards. 

1214.  From  the  number  of  concentric  zones  observed  in  a  transverse  section 
of  the  stems  De  Caudolle  advances  proof  of  the  following  ages : 

Elm       .        .       .       .       ...       ...  335  years. 

Cypress about  350 

Cheirostemon ,,400 

Ivy        ....       .,    ...       «...  .          450 

Larch    .       .       .    \ ,'      .'.'   i       .       .          576 
Orange         .  .       .       .       ..      »          630 

Olive     .       ,       •   •-..'      .       ...  700 

Oriental  Plane ,,     720        and  upwards. 

Cedar  of  Lebanon ,,800 

Oak  .  .  .  .  .  810,  1080,  1500 
Lime  .  .  .  ."  .  .  .  1076;  1147 
Yew  .  .  .  .  .  1214,  1458,  2588,  2880 
Taxodium  .  .  ...  4000  to  6000 
Boabab 5150 

1215.  Admitting,  with  Professor  Henslow,  that  De  Candolle  overrated  the  aires 
of  these  trees  one-third,  they  are  examples  of  extraordinary  longevity.    Yew 
trees  upwards  of  700  years  old  remain  at  Fountains  Abbey,  Yorkshire,  as  thera 
is  historic  evidence  of  their  existence  in  the  year  1133.    But  a  yew  in  the  church- 
yard of  Darley-in-the-Dale,  Derbyshire,  is  considered  by  Mr.  Bowman  as  2  ;oo 
years  old. 

1216.  The  cryptogamous  plants  afford  the  most  numerous  examples  of  wide 
diffusion.    A  lichen  indigenous  in  Cornwall,  sticta  aurata,  is  also  a  native  of  tho 
West  India  Islands,  Brazil,  St  Helena,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  while  3  > 
lichens  and  28  mosses  are  common  to  Great  Britain  and  Australia,  though  th;> 
general  vegetation  of  the  two  districts  is  remarkably  discordant.    Some  species 
of  endogenous  plants  are   also  widely  distributed,  the  Phleum  alpinum  of 
Switzerland  occurring  without  the  slightest  difference  at  the  Strait  of  Magellan, 
and  the  quaking  grasses  of  Europe  in  the  interior  of  Southern  Africa.    But  only 
in  very  few  instances  are  the  same  species  of  exogenous  plants  met  with  in 
regions  far  apart  from  each  other ;  and  generally  speaking,  in  passing  from  one 
country  to  another,  we  encounter  a  new  flora ;  for  if  the  same  genera  occur,  the 
species  are  not  identical,  while  in  distr  cts  widely  separated  the  genera  are 
different. 

1217.  The  cryptogamic  plants,  mosses,  lichens,  ferns,  and  fungi,  are  to  the 
whole  mass  of  phaenogainic  vegetation  in  the  following  proportions  in  different 
districts:  Equatorial  latitudes,  0  deg.  to  10  deg.;  on  the  plains,  l-25th,  on  tb>» 
mountains,  l-5tb ;  mean  latitudes,  45  deg.  to  52  deg.  \ ;  high  latitudes,  67  <te»c. 


310  THE   REASON   WHY. 


"To  give  unto  them  beauty  for  ashes,  the  oil  of  joy  for  mourning,  the  garment  of 
praise  for  the  spirit  of  heaviness ;  that  they  might  be  called  Trees  of  righteous- 
ness,   The  planting  of  the  Lord,  that  he  might  be  glorified."— ISAIAH  LXI. 

70  deg.,  proportion  about  equal.  Thus  the  proportion  of  the  flowerless  vegetation 
to  the  flowering  increases  from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  But  the  family  of  ferns, 
filices,  viewed  singly,  forms  an  exception  to  this  law,  decreasing  as  we  depart 
from  equinoctial  countries,  being  l-20th  in  equatorial  and  l-70th  in  mean 
latitudes,  and  not  found  at  all  in  the  high  latitudes  of  the  new  world. 

1218.  In  equinoctial  and  tropical  countries,  where  a  sufficient  supply  of  moisture 
combines  with  the  influence  of  light  and  heat,  vegetation  appears  in  all  its 
magnitude  and  glory.    Its  lower  orders,  mosses,  fungi,  and  confervse,  are  very 
raro.    The  ferns  are  aborescent.    Reeds  ascend  to  the  height  of  a  hundred  feet, 
and  rigid  grasses  rise  to  forty.    The  forests  are  composed  of  majestic  leafy  ever- 
green trees  bearing  brilliant  blossoms,  their  colours  finely  contrasting,  scarcely  any 

^  two  standing  together  being  of  the  samespecies.  Enormous  creepers  climb  their 
trunks;  parasitical  orchidse  hang  in  fostoons  from  branch  to  branch,  and 
augment  the  floral  decoration  with  scarlet,  purple,  blue,  rose,  and  golden  dyes. 
Of  plants  used  by  man  for  food,  or  as  luxuries,  or  for  medicinal  purposes, 
occurring  in  this  region,  rice,  bananas,  dates,  cocoa,  cacao,  bread-fruit,  cotfee,  tea, 
sugar,  vanilla,  Peruvian  bark,  pepper,  cinnamon,  cloves,  and  nutmegs,  arc  cither 
characteristic  of  it  as  principally  cultivated  within  its  limits,  or  entirely  confined 
to  them. 

1219.  Rice  (Oryza-sativa),  the  chief  food  of,  perhaps,  a  third  of  the  human 
race,  is  cultivated  beyond  the  tropics,  but  principally  within  them,  only  where 
there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  water.    It  has  never  been  found  wild;  its  native 
country  is  unknown ;  but  probably  southern  Asia. 

1220.  Bananas,  or  plantains  (Musa  sapientum  et  paradisiaca),  are  cultivated 
in  intertropical  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  The  latter  species  occur  in  Syria.    The 
banana  is  not  known  in  an  uncultivated  state.     Its    produce  is  enornv.  us. 
estimated  to  be  on  the  same  space  of  ground  to  that  of  wheat,  as  133  to  1 ,  and  to 
Uiat  of  potatoes  as  44  to  1. 

1221.  Dates  (Pfuenix  dactylifera),  and  cocoa  (Cocos  nucifera),  belonging  to 
the  family  Palmce.    The  palms,  remarkable  for  the:r  elegant  forms  and  impor- 
tance to  man,  contribute  moie  than  any  other  trees  to  impress  upon  the  vege- 
tation of  tropical  and  equinoctial  countries  its  peculiar  physiognomy.    The 
date  palm  is  a  native  of  northern  Africa,  and  is  so  abundant  between  the 
Barbary  states  and  the  Sahara,  that  the  district  has  been  named  Biledul  end, 
the  land  of  dates.    As  the  desert  is  approached,  the  only  objects  that  break  the 
monotony  of  the  landscape  are  the  date  palm,  and  the  tent  of  the  Arab.    It 
accompanies  the  margin  of  the  mighty  desert  in  all  its  sinuosities  from  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic  to  the  confines  of  Persia,  and  is  the  only  vegetable 
affording  subsistence  to  man  that  can  grow  in  such  an  arid  situation.     The 
annual  produce  of  an  individual  is  from  150  to  2601bs.  weight  of  fruit.    The 
cocoa  palm  famishes  annually  about  a  hundred  cocoa-nuts.     It  is  spread 
throughout  the  torrid  zone ;  but  occurs  most  abundantly  in  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  archipelago.    The  family  of  palms  is  supposed  to  contain  a  thousand 
species,  some  of  large  size,  forming  extensive  forests. 

1222.  Cacao  (Theobrama  cacao),   from   the   seeds   of  which   chocolate  is 
prepared,  grows  wild  in  central  America,  and  is  also  extensively  cultivated  in 
Mexico,  Guatamala,  and  on  the  coast  of  Cumana. 

1223.  Bread-fruit  tree  (Artooarpus  incisa},  a  native  of  the  South  Sea  Islands, 
and  Indian  archipelago,  grows  also  in  Southern  Asia,  and  has  been  introduce* 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  311 


"And  they  returned  and  prepared  spices  and  ointments ;  and  rested  the 
Sabbath-day,  according  to  the  commandment." — LUKE  xxiv. 


Into  the  tropical  parts  of  America;  but  the  fruit  is  not  equal  to  the  banana  as 
an  article  of  human  food. 

1224.  Coffee  (Coffea  Arabica).    The  bush  has  probably  for  its  native  region 
the  Ethiopian  Highlands,  from  whence  it  was  taken  in  the  fifteenth  century 
to  the  Highlands  of  Yemen,  the  southern  part  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.    It 
has  been  introduced,  and  is  now  extensively  cultivated  in  British  India,  Java, 
Ceylon,  the  Mauritius,  Brazil,  and  the  West  Indies,  but  the  quality  is  inferior, 
which  makes  the  climate  of   the  Mocha  coffee  district  of  importance,    as 
peculiarly  favourable  to  the  plant.    It   grows  there  on  hills    described    by 
Niebuhr  as  being  soaked  with  rain  every  day  from  the  beginning  of  June  to  the 
end  of  September,  which  is  carefully  collected  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation  during 
the  dry  season.    Forskhal  gives  the  following  temperatures  in  the  district : 

\  Boit  el  Fakih    ...    March  16,    7  A.M.  76  deg.    1  P.M  95  deg.    10  P.M.  81  deg. 
„       18,       „       77  ,,     95  „       81 

Hodeida     ,       18,       „       72  „     92f  „      78 

Bulgosa,  a  village 
in  the  hills     ...        „       20,        „       69J  „      854  „       73 

1225.  Tea  (Thea  Chinensis).    The  plant  is  indigenous  in  China,  Japan,  and 
Upper  Assam.    In  the  latter  country,  it  has  recently  been  found  in  a  wild  state, 
and  is  in  process  there  of  extensive  cultivation.  As  the  plant  is  hardy,  its  culture 
has  very  lately  been  attempted  in  the  South  of  France,  and  apparently  with 
complete  success.    A  similar  experiment  on  the  burning  plains  of  Algeria  com- 
pletely failed,  all  the  plants  being  killed  by  the  heat,   notwithstanding  every 
precaution.    Tea  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Dutch  in  1666.    The 
leaves  of  the  coffee-plant  have  long  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  tea,  by  the 
lower  classes  in  Java  and  Sumatra ;  and  recently,  Professor  Blume,  of  Leyden, 
exhibited  samples  of  tea  pre  pared  from  coffee-leaves,  agreeing  entirely  in  ap- 
peaiunce,  odour,  and  taste,  with  the  genuine  Chinese  production. 

1226.  Sugar-cane  (Saccharum  officinaramj,  a  species  of  Graminece,  occurs  to 
some  extent  without  the  tropics,  having   been  cultivated  centuries  ago  in 
Europe,  as  at  present  scantily  in  the  South  of  Spain.    But  it  properly  belongs  to 
the  torrid  zone,  and  has  for  its  principal  districts,  the  Southern  United  States, 
the  West  Indies,  Venezuela,  Brazil,  the  Mauritius,  British  India,  China,  the 
Sunda  and  Philippine  Islands.     The  plant  was  found  wild  in  several  parts  of 
America  on  the  discovery  of  that  continent,  and  occurs  in  a  wild  state  on  many 
of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

1227.  Vanilla  (Vanilla  aromatica),  the  fruit  of  which  forms  the  well-known 
aromatic,  grows  wild  principally  in  Mexico. 

1228.  Peruvian  bark  (Cinchona  offidnalis),  a  forest  tree,  of  which  there  are 
several  species,  furnishing  the  valuable  medicine  so  called.    Tt  is  exclusively 
confined  to  South  America,  and  grows  chiefly  on   the   Andes  of  Loxa  and 
Venezuela. 

1229.  Pepper  (Piper   nigrum)   belongs  exclusively  to  the  Malabar  coast, 
where  it  has  been  found  wild,  Sumatra,  which  produces  the  greatest  quantity, 
Borneo,  the  Malay  peninsula,  and  Siam.    Other  species  of  Piperacecc  occur  in 
tropical  America. 

1280.  Cinnamon  (Laurus  Cinnamomum),  a  small  tree  yielding  the  aromatic 
bark,  is  found  native  only  in  the  island  of  Ceylon ;  but  another  species  occurs  in 
Cochin  China. 


312  THE    REASON   WHY. 


'  I  am  the  true  vine,  and  my  Father  is  the  husbandman."—  Jonw  xv. 


1231.  Clove  (Myrtus  caryophyllus) ,  an  evergreen  small  tree,  the  dried  flower- 
buds  of  which  form  the  celebrated  aromatic,  grows  naturally  in  the  Moluccas, 
whence  it  has   been   conveyed   to  other  tropical   districts.      The   island   ot 
Amboyna,  one  of  that  group,  is  the  principal  seat  of  its  cultivation.    The  lowest 
temperature  there  is  72  degs. ;  the  mean  temperature  of  the  year  82  degs. 

1232.  Nutmeg  (Myrstica  moschata}  grows  naturally  in  several  islands  of  the 
eastern  archipelago,  but  is  principally  cultivated  in  the  Banda  Isles. 

Tropical  families  and  forms  successively  vanish  with  an  increase  of  distance 
from  the  equator,  and  new  phases  of  vegetation  mark  the  transition  from  hot  to 
temperate  climates.  Vivirlly  green  meadows,  abounding  with  tender  herbs, 
replace  the  tall  rigid  grasses  which  form  the  impenetrable  jungle;  and  instead 
of  forests  composed  of  towering  evergreen  trees,  woods  of  the  deciduous  class 
appear,  which  cast  their  leaves  in  winter,  and  hybernate  in  the  colder  season, 
the  oak,  ash,  elm,  maple,  beech,  lime,  alder,  birch,  and  sycamore.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  tho  vine  becomes  characteristic,  with  the  perfection  of  the  cereal 
grasses,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  herbaceous  annuals  and  cryptogamic  plants. 

1233.  The  vine  (Vitis  viniferaj  is  less  impatient  of  a  cold  winter  than  a  cool 
summer.    Hence  its  northern  limit,  which  coincides  with  lat.  47  deg.  30  min.  on 
the  west  coast  of  France,  rises  in  the  interior,  where,  though  the  winters  are 
colder,  the  summers  are  warmer,  to  lat.  49  degs.,  cuts  the  Rhine  at  Coblentz  in 
lat.  50  deg.  20  min.,  and  ascends  to  52  deg.  31  min.  in  Germany. 

1234.  Receding  further  from  the  equator,  magnificent  forests  of  the  fir  and 
pine  tribe  prevail,  as  in  the  central  parts  of  Russia,  on  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Baltic,  in  Scandinavia,  and  North  America.    But  some  of  the  cereals  are  no 
longer  cultivatable,  and  several  timber-trees  common  to  the  temperate  zone  do 
not  reach  its  northern  limits.    Gradually  all  ligneous  vegetation  disappears 
entirely  as  higher  latitudes  are  approached,  the  woods  having  first  dwindled  to 
mere  dwarfs  in  struggling  with  the  elements,  hosti  e  to  that  state  which  nature 
destined  them  to  assume.    The  limit  of  the  forests  is  a  sinuous  line  running 
along  the  extreme  north  of  the  old  world ;  and  extending  from  Hudson's  Bay, 
lat.  60  deg.,  to  the  Mackenzie  River,  lat.  63  deg.,  and  thence  to  Behring's  Strait. 
The  dwarf  birch  (Betula  nana),  a  mere  bush,  is  the  last  tree  found  on  drawing 
near  the  eternal  snow  of  the  pole.    At  th )  island  of  Hammerfest,  lat.  70  deg. 
40  min.,  near  the  North  Cape,  it  rises  to  about  the  height  of  a  man,  in  sheltered 
hollows  between  the  mountains,  its  lower  branches  trailing  on  the  ground, 
affording  a  shelter  to  the  ptarmigan.    In  the  polar  zone,  some  low  flowering 
annuals,  saxifrages,    ranunculi,  gentians,    chickweeds,    and    others,    flourish 
during  the  brief  ardent  summer;  a  few  perennials  also  accommodate  them- 
selves to  the  rigorous  climate  by  spreading  laterally,  never  rising  higher  than 
four  or  five  indhes  from  the  ground ;  till  finally  no  development  of  vegetable  life 
is  met  with,  but  lichens,  and  the  microscopic  forms  that  colour  the  snow. 

1235.  In  Europe,  wheat  ceases  with  a  line  connecting  Inverness  in  Scotland, 
lat.  58  de?.,  Drontheim  in  Norway,  lat.  64  deg.,  and  Petersburgh  in  Russia  lat. 
60  deg.  15  min.    Oats  reach  a  somewhat  higher  latitude.    Barley  and  rye  ascend 
to  lat.  70  deg.,  but  require  a  favourable  aspect  and  season  to  produce  a  crop. 

1236.  The  northern  limit  of  the  growth  of  oak,  lat.  61  deg.,  falls  short  of  that 
of  wheat.    The  oak  makes  a  singular  leap  at  the  confines  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
disappearing  towards  the  Ural  mountains.    This  is  the  casea  !so  with  the  wild- 
nut  and  apple.    The  oak  and  the  wild- nut,  however,  re-appear  iuddenly  in 


THE    SEASON    WHY.  313 


"  He  hath  made  the  earth  by  his  power,  he  hath  establish°d  the  world  by  his 
wisdom,  and  hath  stretched  out  the  heavens  by  his  discretion."— JEREMIAH  x 


Eastern  Asia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Argoun  and  the  Amour;  and  the  apple  occurs 
again  in  the  Aleutian  Isles. 

1237.  The  following  are  the  northern  limits  of  several  trees  in  Scandinavia: 

Lai. 

Beech,  Fagus  silvatica       ...       60  deg.    0  mill. 
Hard  Oak  ,Quercus  robur          .       .       61    „      0 
Common  Elm,  Ulmus  campestris       .       61    „      0 
Common  Lime,  Tilia  communis         .       61    „      0 
Common  Ash,  Fraxinus  excelsior      .       62    „      0 

Fruit  trees  63    „      0 

Hazel,  Corylus  avellana  "  »  .  .  64  „  0 
Spruce  Fir,  Abies  excelsa  .  .  .  67  „  *0 
Service  Tree,  Sorbus  aucuparia  .  70  „  0 
Scotch  Fir,  Pimis  silvestris  .  .  70  „  0 
White  Birch,  Betula  alba  .  .  70  „  40 

Dwarf  Birch,  Betula  nana  .       .       71    „      0 

1238.  TJus  distinct  vegetable  regions  are  observed  on  passing  from  south  to 
north  through  different  climatic  zones,    defined    as  to  their   limits  by  the 
isothermal  curves,  and  not  by  the  parallels  of  latitude.  Similar  changes  of  vege- 
tation mark  a  perpendicular  transit  through  varying  climates.    A  succession  of 
plants  appear  on  the  tropical  mountains  which  rise  above  the  snow  line,  corres- 
ponding to  those  which  are  encountered  in  mean  and  high   latitudes.     The 
higher  we  ascend,  the  more  does  the  number  of  the  phzenogamic  class  diminish 
in  proportion  to  the  cryptogann'c,  till  only  members  of  the  latter  family  are 
found,  whose  further  progress  upward  is  arrested  by  the  everlasting  snow.    The 
last  lichen  met  with  by  Saussure  on  Mont  Blanc,  Silene  acaulis,  was  also 
observed  by  M.  Brevais  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bosekop,  lat.  69  deg.  58  min. 
where  it  was  vegetating  on  the  sea-shore,  shaded  by  the  last  pines  of  Europe. 

1239.  Isolated  mountains  display  to  the  best  advantage  the  effuct  of  climatic 
change  of  vegetation. 

1240.  Etna  is  divided  into  three  great  regions:  La  Regions  Culta,  or  fertile  re- 
gion ;  La  Regione  Sylvosa,  or  woody  region ;  La  Regions  Deserta,  the  bare  or 
desert  region.    But  each  of  these  is  susceptible  of  sub-divisions,  defined  by  the 
presence  of  certain  families  of  plants,  forming  seven  botanical  zones. 

1.  The  sub-tropical  zone,  which  does  not  rise  more  than  100  feet  above  the 
evel  of  the  sea,  is  characterised  by  the  palm,  banana,  Indian  fig,  sugar-cane, 

varities  of  mimosa  and  ac«acia,  which  with  us  are  only  found  in  conservatories. 

2.  Th6  hilly  zone,  rises  about  2,000  feet,  characterised  by  the  orange,  lemon, 
shaddock,  maize,  cotton,  and  grape  plants. 

3.  The  woody  zone  lies  between  the  height  of  2,OCO  and  4,000  feet,  where  the 
cork-tree  flourishes,  several  kinds  of  oak,  the  maple,  and  enormous  chesuuts. 

4.  The  zone  between  the  height  of  4,000  and  6,000  feet  is  distinguished  by  the 
beech,  Scotch  fir,  birch,  and,  among  small  plants,  by  clover,  sandwort,  chick- 
weed,  dock,  and  plantain. 

5.  The  sub-alpino  zone,  between  the  elevation  of  6,000  and  7,500  feet,  produces 
the  barberry,  soap-wort,  toad-flax,  and  juniper. 

6.  The  zone  between  7,500  and  9,000  feet,  has  almost  all  the  plants  of  the  pre» 
ceding,  with  the  fleshy  and  jagged  groundsel. 

14 


314  THE    SEASON    WHY. 


"  In  the  mountain  of  the  height  of  Israel  will  I  plant  it ;  and  it  shall  bring 
forth  boughs,  and  bear  fruit,  and  be  a  goodly  cedar :  and  under  it  shall  dwell  all 
fowl  of  every  wing ;  in  the  shadow  of  the  branches  thereof  shall  they  dwell."— 

E/5EKIEL  XVII. 


7.  The  narrow  zone  between  9,000  and  9,200  feet,  only  produces  a  few  lichens. 
Icyond  which,  there  is  complete  sterility. 

'  1241.  The  Peak  of  Teneriffe  exhibits  five  botanical  districts,  thus  distinguished 
by  Von  Buch : 

1.  The  region  of  Africa  forms,  0 — 1,248  feet,  comprising  palms,  bananas,  the 
sugar-cane,  various  species  of  arborescent  Euphorbice,  Mesembryanthema,  the 
Dracaena,  and  other  plants,  whose  naked  and  tortuous  trunks,  succulent  leaves, 
and  bluish-green  tints,  are  distinctive  of  the  vegetation  of  Africa. 

2.  Region  of  Vines  and  Cereals,  1,248—2,748  feet,  comprising  also  the  olive, 
and  the  fruit-trees  of  Europe. 

3.  Region  of  Laurels,  2,748  -4,350  feet,  including  lauri  of  four  species,  the  wild 
olive,  an  oak,  the  iron -tree,  the  arbutus,  and  other  evergreens.    The  ivy  of  the 
Canaries  and  various  twining  shrubs  cover  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  and  nume- 
rous species  of  fern  occur,  with  beautiful  flowering  plants. 

4.  Region  of  the  Pines,  4,350—6,270,  characterised  by  a  vast  forest  of  trees 
resembling  the  Scotch  fur,  intermixed  with  juniper. 

5.  Region  of  the  Retama,  6,270—11,061  feet,  a  species  of  broom,  which  forms 
oases  in  the  midst  of  a  desert  of  ashes,  ornamented  with  fragrant  flowers,  and 
furnishing  food  to  the  goats  which  run  wild  on  the  Peak.    A  few  gramineous 
and  cryptogamic  plants  are  observed  higher,  but  the  summit  is  entirely  des- 
titute of  vegetation. 

1242.  There  are  many  plants  which  can  accommodate  themselves  to  the  most 
diverse  climates  and  localities;  and  therefore  ascend  from  the  plains  close  to  the 
boundary  of  vegetable  life  on  the  highest  mountains.  But  it  is  the  general  law 
in  these  cases  for  such  plants  to  be  singularly  modified  in  appearance  and 
anatomical  structure  as  they  ascend.  The  spring  gentian,  Gentiana  verna, 
is  one  of  the  exceptions,  which  Raymond  found  unaltered  at  all  heights  in  the 
Pyrenees. 

1213.  Trees,  plants,  and  bushes,  of  humbler  growth,  which  occur  on  the  plains 
and  at  great  heights,  are  usually  much  smaller  in  the  latter  situation.  ri  he 
leaves,  and  everything  green  about  them,  dwindle  with  the  increased  elevation  ; 
and  the  pure,  well  defined  green  is  exchanged  for  an  ill-defined  light  yellow. 
Singular  enough,  those  parts  which  seem  most  capable  of  resisting  cold,  as  tho 
leaves  and  stalks,  are  uniformly  subjected  to  a  diminution  of  their .  vital 
functions;  while  the  flowers  remain  of  the  same  size,  are  never  deformed,  and 
become  more  dense  and  richer  in  their  colours.  While  the  Hyosotis  silvestris 
becomes  stunted,  its  flowers  assume  an  intense  blue— the-admiration  of  the 
traveller.  The  flowers  of  the  pale  primrose  have  a  much  deeper  colour  on  the 
top  of  the  Faulhorn,  while  the  plant  itself  is  much  smaller  than  its  congener  on 
tlie  Swiss  plains.  The  observations  of  M.  Parrot,  among  others,  are  to  this 
effect  on  the  flora  of  the  Caucasus,  of  Ararat,  the  Swiss  and  Italian  Alps,  and 
the  Pyrenees.  The  arctic  flora  ii  similarly  distinguished. 

1241.  The  preceding  references  to  different  climatic  states  are,  however, 
perfectly  inadequate  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  vegetable  distribution.  While 
an  analogy  is  often  observable  between  the  plants  of  different  regions  under 
corresponding  circumstances  of  latitude,  elevation,  and  soil,  the  species  are 
generally  found  to  be  different ;  and  usually  the  botanical  character  of  countries 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  315 


From  the  rising  of  the  sun,  unto  the  going  down  of  the  same,  the  Lord's  name 
is  to  be  praised."— PSALM  cxm. 


not  widely  apart  from  each  other,  is  totally  different,  though  under  the  same 
parallels. 

1245.  Some  plants  are  entirely  confined  to  one   side  of  our  planet.     The 
beautiful  genus  Erica,  or  heath,  of  which  there  are  upwards  of  300  species, 
occurs  with  breaks  over  a  narrow  surface,  extending  from  a  high  northern 
latitude  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.    But  the  whole  continent  of  America  does 
not  contain  a  single  native  specimen ;  nor  has  a  Paenia  been  found  in  it,  except 
a  solitary  one  to  the  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.    On  the  other  hand,  the  New 
World  contains  many  families,  as  the  Cacti,  which  are  not  found  naturally  in 
the  Old. 

1246.  Some  plants  occur  in  a  single  specific  locality,  frequently  a  contracted 
area,  and  nowhere  else.  The  beautiful  Disa  grandiflora  is  limited  to  a  spot  on 
the  top  of  the  Table  Mountain  at  the  Cape ;  and  the  celebrated  cedar  of  Leba- 
ii  n  appears  to  be  restricted  in  its  spontaneous  growth  to  the  Syrian  moun- 
tains.   The  small  island  of  St.  Helena  has  an  indigenous  flora,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions different  from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  globe. 

1247.  Mountain  chains  of  no  great  width  very  commonly  divide  a  totally  dis- 
tinct botany.    There  is  a  marked  difference  iu  the  vegetation  of  the  Chilian  and 
opposite  side  of  the  Andes,  though  the  climate  as  well  as  the  soil  is  nearly  the 
same,  and  the  difference  of  longitude  very  trifling.  In  North  America,  two  com- 
pletely different  classes  of  vegetation  appear  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.     A  variety  of  oaks,   palms,  magnolias,   azaleas,  and  magnificent 
rhododendrons  occur  on  the  eastern  side,  all  of  which  are-tinkn  own  on  the 
western,  the  region  of  the  giant  pine. 

1248.  The  distinct  vegetation  possessed  by  various  parts  of  the  globe,  has  led 
to  its  division  into  botanical  kingdoms  or  phyto-geographical  regions,  named  in 
general  after  the  genera  thac  are  either  peculiar  to  them,  or  predominant  in 
them.    The  arrangement  of  M.  Schouw  which  is  usually  adopted,  discriminates 
twenty-five  great  provinces  of  characteristic  vegetation  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth. 

In  constituting  any  portion  of  the  globe  into  a  phyto-geographical  region,  M. 
Schouw  has  proceeded  upon  the  following  principles :— 1.  That  at  least  one- half 
of  the  species  should  be  indigenous  in  it.  2.  That  a-quarter  of  the  genera 
should  also  be  peculiar  to  it,  or  _at  least  should  have  a  decided  maximum.  ?, 
That  individual  families  of  plants  should  either  be  exclusively  confined  to  the 
region,  or  have  their  maxima  there. 

1249.  The  phenomena  of  botanical  geography,  and  the  facts  of  geology,  are 
mutually  illustrative.    The  existing  dry  land  having  been  upheaved  above  the 
waters  at  different  epochs,  it  may  be  reasonably  inferred  that  each  portion  on 
its  emergence  received  a  vegetable  creation  in  harmony  with  its  position.    The 
ultimate  constitution  of  the  general  surface  into  different  botanical  kingdoms 
would  hence  follow,  each  of  which  has  preserved  its  primitive  features,  while 
adjoining,  and  even  far  distant  foci,  have  to  some  extent  intermingled  their 
respective  products,  under  control  of  the  natural  agencies  of  diffusion. 

1250.  The  agents  that  involuntarily  officiate  in  the  diffusion  of  vegetable  pro- 
ducts are  the  atmosphere,  the  waters,  and  many  animals. 

1.  The  impulsion  of  the  atmosphere  in  its  calmest  state,  is  quite  sufficient  to 
transport  to  considerable  distances  seeds  furnished  with  downy  appendages  or 
winglots,  as  is  the  case  with  many  plants,  with  the  minute  sporules  of 


316 


THE    EEASOX    WHY. 


1  He  shall  come  down  like  rain  upon  the  mown  grass,  as  showers  that  water  the 
earth."— PSALM  LXXII. 


cryptogamia,  which  are  light  as  the  finest  powder.  When  ordinary  breezes 
convey  the  sand -dust  of  the  Sahara  a  thousand  miles  or  more  from  the  desert, 
it  may  be  conceived  that  seeds,  which  are  comparatively  heavy,  are  borne  far 
from  home  by  the  hurricane.  Two  Jamaica  lichens,  which  had  never  been  seen 
in  France  before,  were  found  by  De  Candolle  growing  on  the  coast  of  Brittany, 
the  offspring  of  sporules  which  had  been  swept  over  the  Atlantic. 

2.  The  mountain  torrent  washes  down  into  the  valley  the  seeds  that  have 
accidentally  fallen  into  it,  or  have  been  swept  away  by  its  overflows ;  and  hence 
the  plants  of  the  High  Alps  occur  on  the  plains  of  Switzerland,  which  are 
entirely  wanting  in  France  and  Germany.    Rivers  answer  the  same  purpose 
more  extensively,  and  also  the  oceanic  currents.    The  nicker-tree,  one  of  the 
leguminous  tribe,  has  been  raised  from  seed  borne  across  the  Atlantic  by  the 
Gulf  stream. 

3.  Animals  of  the  sheep  and  goat  kinds,  with  the  horse,  deer,  buffalo,  and 
others,  widely  disperse  several  species  of  plants,  the  seeds  of  which,  furnished 
with  an  apparatus  of  barbs  and  hooks,  adhere  to  their  coating.    Seeds  also  of 
various  kinds  pass  through  the  digestive  organs  of  birds,  uninjured  as  to  their 
vitality.     The   little  squirrel   buries    the  acorn   in  the  ground  for  winter 
provender,  and  sows  an  oak,  if  prevented  from  returning  to  the  spot. 

1251.  Plants  capable  of  extended  naturalisation,  and  serviceable  as  articles  of 
food  or  luxury,  have  been  widely  disseminated  by  the  human  race  in  their 
migrations.    The^cerealia  afford  a  striking  example.    These  important  grasses 
known  to  the  ancients,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  rye,  were  the  gifts  of  the  Old 
World  to  the  New.    They  are  also  importations  into  Europe;  but  the  loose 
reports  of  the  ancients,  and  the  diligent  researches  of  the  moderns,  alike  leave  us 
in  ignorance  of  their  native  seat.    Probability  points  to  the  conclusion  that  they 
have  spread  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  great  rivers  of  Western  Asia,  the 
primitive  location  of  the  human  family ;  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  in  that 
imperfectly  explored  district,  or  further  east  on  the  Tartarian  table-land,  some 
of  the  cereals  may  yet  be  found  growing  spontaneously.    The  first  wheat  sown 
in  North  America,  consisted  of  a  few  grains  accidentally  found  by  a  negro  slave 
of  Cortes,  among  the  rice  taken  for  the  support  of  his  army.    In  South  America 
the  first  wheat  was  brought  to  Lima  by  one  of  -the  early  colonists,  a  Spanish  lady, 
Maria  d'Escobar.    An  ecclesiastic,  Jose  Rixi,  was  the  first  to  sow  it  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Quito. 

1252.  Maize,  or  Indian  corn  (Zeamays),  has  been  dispersed  in  the  Old  World 
from  the  New;  and  also  a  more  important  product,   the  potato    (Solanum 
tuberosum),  the  use  of  which  now  extends  from  the  extremity  of  Africa  to 
Lapland.    In  Chili,  the  native  country  of  the  plant,  it  occurs  at  present  in  a 
wild  state.     The  Spaniards  imported  it  into  Spain,  and  from  thence  it  was 
communicated  to  Italy.    It  was  first  made  known  in  England  at  a  subsequent 
period  from  Virginia,  having  been  received  there  from  the  Spanish  colonists  in 
South  America,  as  it  is  not  a  native  of  intervening  Mexico. 

1253.  The  grape-vine,  so  extensively  spread  over  Europe,  is  probably  net 
indigenous  in  any  part  of  it.    It  chiefly  owes  its  diffusion  there  to  the  Romans, 
who  received  it  from  the  Greeks,  to  whom  it  most  likely  immediately  came 
from  the  country  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.    The  Romans  intro- 
duced  most   of  the  finer  European  fruit-trees,    some   from  Africa,  as    tho 


THE    SEASON    WHY.  317 


"  To  every  thing  there  is  a  season,  and  a  time  to  every  purpose  under  heaven."— 

ECCLESIASTES  III. 


pomegranate,  but  the  great  majority  from  Western  Asia,  as  the  orange,  fig, 
cherry,  peach,  apricot,  apple,  and  pear.  A  variety  of  the  plum,  the  damson,  or 
damascene,  came  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Damascus  during  the  Crusades. 
The  name  of  the  damask-rose  points  to  the  importation  of  the  plant  from  the 
same  quarter  into  Europe. 

The  ocean  as  well  as  the  land  has  different  botanical  regions ;  and  changes 
of  the  vegetation  are  observed  with  the  depth  analogous  to  the  variations  of 
terrestrial  plants  with  the  height.  Marine  vegetation  seems  to  have  its  vertical 
extent  determined  by  the  range  of  light  in  water,  which  varies  with  the 
power  of  the  sun  and  the  transparency  of  the  water. 


CHAPTER    LXIII. 

1254.  What  are  vegetable  gums  ? 

Vegetable  gums  are  secretions  of  plants  which  are  generally 
soluble  in  water,  and  which  subserve  various  useful  purposes. 
Gum  Arabic  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  this  class  of  vegetable 
productions. 

G-utta-percha  is  an  invaluable  substance  lately  added  4q 
the  list  of  known  vegetable  productions.  It  is  obtained  by 
cutting  the  bark  of  trees  of  the  class  called  Sapotacea.  Its 
proper  name  is  gutta  Pulo  Percha,  gutta  meaning  gum,  and  Pulo 
Porcha  is  the  island  whence  it  is  obtained.  But  gutta-percha  is 
not,  strictly  speaking,  a  gum. 

India-rubber  is  also  a  vegetable  secretion,  improperly  called 
elastic  gum.  It  is  obtained  from  the  milky  juice  of  various  trees 
and  plants,  especially  from  the  syringe  tree,  of  Cayenne. 

1255.  What  are  vegetable  resins  ? 

Vegetable  resins  are  derived  from  the  secretions  of  plants,  and 
j>re  generally  distinguished  from  gums  by  being  insoluble  in 
water,  but  being  soluble  in  spirits. 

When  one  of  these  substances  is  soluble  in  either  water  or  spirits 
it  is  called  a  gum-resin. 

1256.  What  are  vegetable  acids  ? 

Vegetable  acids  are  chiefly  obtained  from  fruit ;  but  also  abun- 
dantly from  wood,  by  distillation. 


818  THE    SEASON   WHY. 


"  Thou  art  the  God  that  doest  wonders."— PSALM  ixxvn. 

1257.  What  is  tannin  ? 

Tannin  is  a  vegetable  production,  obtained  chiefly  from  the  oak- 
bark,  and  from  a  variety  of  other  vegetable  sources.  It  possesses 
the  peculiar  chemical  property  which  renders  it  valuable  in  tanning 
leather. 

1258.  What  is  opium? 

Opium  is  the  produce  of  the  poppy,  and  is  obtained  from  the  seed. 

1259.  What  are  vegetable  dyes  ? 

Vegetable  dy3s  are  the  various  colours  derived  from  the  secretions 
of  plants,  such  as  indigo,  madder,  logwood,  allcanet-root,  Sfc. 

1260.  What  is  silica  ? 

Silica  is  a  mineral  substance,  commonly  known  as  flint ;  and  it 
is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  vegetable  tribes,  that,  although  flint  is 
so  indestructible  that  the  strongest  chemical  aid  is  required  for  its 
solution,  plants  possess  the  power  of  dissolving  and  secreting  it. 
Even  so  delicate  a  structure  as  the  wheat  straw  dissolves  silica, 
and  every  stalk  of  wheat  is  covered  with  a  perfect,  but  inconceivably 
thin  coating  of  this  substance. 

Amid  all  the  wonders  of  nature  which  we  have  had  occasion  to  explain,  there 
is  none  more  startling  than  that  which  reveals  to  our  knowledge  the  fact  that  a 
flint  stone  consists  of  the  mineralised  bodies  of  animals,  just  as  coal  consists  of 
masses  of  mineralised  vegetable  matter.  The  animals  are  believed  to  have  been 
infusorial  animalculae,  coated  with  silicous  shells,  as  the  wheat  straw  of  to-day 
is  clothed  with  a  glassy  covering  of  silica.  The  skeletons  of  animalcules 
which  compose  flint  may  be  brought  under  microscopic  examination.  Geologists 
have  some  difficulty  in  determining  their  opinions  respecting  the  relation  which 
these  aiiimalculse  bear  to  the  flint  stones  in  which  they  are  found.  Whether 
the  animalculae,  in  dense  masses,  form  the  flint;  or  whether  the  flint  merely 
supplies  a  sepulchre  to  the  countless  millions  of  creatures  that,  ages  ago,  enjoyed 
each  a  separate  and  conscious  existence,  is  a  problem  that  may  never  be  solved. 
And  what  a  problem !  The  buried  plant  being  disentombed,  after  having 
lain  for  ages  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  gives  us  light  and  warmth;  and  the 
animalcule,  after  a  sleep  of  ages,  dissolves  into  the  sap  of  a  plant,  and  wraps  the 
coat  it  wore,  probably  "  in  the  beginning,  when  God  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  and  when  the  earth  first  brought  forth  living  creatures,"  around  the 
Blender  stalk  of  waving  corn  ! 

1261.  Why  is  silica   diffused  over  the  stems  of  tvheat, 
grasses,  canes,  Sfc.  ? 

Because  it  affords  strength,  density,  and  durability,  to  structure* 


THE   BEASON    WHY.  319 


1  For  in  this  mountain  shall  the  hand  of  the  Lord  rest,  and  Moab  shall  be  trodden 

down  under  him,  even  as  straw  is  trodden  down  for  the  dunghill." — 

ISAIAH  xxv. 


that  are  very  light,  and  which,  but  for  this  beautiful  provision,  would 
be  exceedingly  perishable. 

1262.  Why  is  guano  a  productive  manure  ? 

Because  it  contains,  with  other  suitable  elements,  an  abundance 
of  the  silicons  skeletons  of  animalcule. 

1263.  W  hy  does  a  wheat-crop  greatly  exhaust  the  soil  ? 

Because,  as  well  as  the  carbon,  and  the  salts,  which  form  the 
straw  and  the  grain,  it  draws  off  from  the  soil  a  great  amount  of 
silica. 

1264.  Why  is  straw  frequently  used  as  a  manure? 
Because  it  gives  back,  with  other  substances,    a  considerable 

proportion  of  silica,  in  that  form  which  adapts  it  to  the  use  of  the 
succeeding  crop. 

1265.  Why  is  the  structure   of  herbaceous  plants   less 
consolidated  than  that  of  woody  plants  ? 

Because,  for  the  most  part,  herbaceous  plants  last  only  a  single 
year  ;  they,  therefore,  do  not  require  the  enduring  qualities  of  plants 
that  have  to  sustain  the  influences  of  the  elements  for  a  succession 
of  seasons. 

1266.  Why  are  the  stalks  of  plants  of  light  structure 
generally  cylindrical  ? 

Because  the  cylindrical  form  is  stronger  than  any  other;  a 
hollow  cylinder,  with  moderately  thick  walls,  is  stronger  than  a 
solid  rod,  containing  the  same  amount  of  material. 

1267.  Why  do  the  stalks  of  plants  become  hollow  ? 
Because  the  parallel  and  perpendicular  fibres  of  the  stalk  are 

developed  more  rapidly  than  the  horizontal.     The  growth  of  the 
plant,  therefore,  consists  of  a  kind  of  divergence  from  the  centre. 

1268.  Why  are  the  stomata,  or  pores  of  leaves,  generally 
placed  on  their  under  surface  ? 

Because,  being  placed  on  the  under  surface,  they  are  shaded 
from  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  so  carry  on  the  Function  of 


320  THE    EEASON   WHY. 

-  - -  --  -- 

"  The  trees  of  the  Lord  are  full  of  sap :  and  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  which  he  hath 
planted."— PSALM  crv. 

respiration  more  actively  than  if  subjected  to  direct  heat ;  they  are 
also  protected  from  the  injurious  effects  of  dust ;  and  are  moistened 
by  evaporation  from  the  earth's  surface. 

1269.  Why  have  plants  a  formation  of  pith   in   their 
centre  ? 

The  pith  is  the  chief  organ  of  nutriment,  especially  in  the  young- 
plant.  It  is  the  structure  which  first  conveys  fluids  to,  and 
receives  them  from,  the  newly-formed  leaf.  It  communicates 
with  every  branch,  leaf,  bud,  and  flower ;  and  also  with  the 
bark,  through  the  medullary  rays,  which  radiate  horizontally 
from  the  centre  of  the  plant.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  movements  of 
the  sap  which  occur  in  the  horizontal  vessels ;  and  it  holds  an 
important  influence  over  the  life  of  the  plant. 

1270.  Why  are  trees  covered  with  lark  ? 

Because  the  bark  serves  to  protect  the  woody  structure,  and  also 
to  give  a  passage  to  the  descending  sap  which  flows  abundantly  in 
the  spring,  and  out  of  which  the  woody  fibre  is  formed.  It  is  also, 
from  its  peculiar  nature,  well  fitted  to  endure  the  changes  of  the 
seasons  for  many  years  ;  and  from  its  non-conducting  properties  it 
serves  to  maintain  the  equal  temperature  of  the  vital  parts  of  the 
tree. 

1271.  What  is  cork? 

Cork  is  the  bark  of  a  description  of  oak-tree,  which  grows  in 
great  abundance  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  France. 

1272.  Why  does  the  cork-tree  release  its  own  lark  ? 

Because  it  possesses  a  bark  which  is  exceedingly  useful  to  man ; 
and  it  seems,  therefore,  to  have  been  the  design  of  providence  that 
the  tree  should  cast  it  off,  to  be  applied  to  the  wants  of  the  human 
family  ;  for  the  cork-tree  does  not  discharge  its  bark  by  the  mere 
cracking,  or  exfoliation,  of  its  substance ;  the  tree  retains  the  bark 
for  a  number  of  years,  until  it  has  attained  that  consistency  and 
thickness  which  renders  it  useful,  and  then  the  tree  forms  within 
the  bark  a  series  of  tabular  cells,  which  cut  off  the  connection 
of  Ihe  bark  with  the  internal  structure,  after  which  it  peels  off 
in  l.irsre  sheets. 


THE    EEASON    WHY.  321 


"  And  all  the  trees  of  the  field  shall  know  that  I  the  Lord  have  brought  down  the 
high  tree,  have  exalted  the  low  tree,  have  dried  up  the  green  tree,  and  have  raade 
the  dry  tree  to  flourish :  I  the  Lord  have  spoken,  and  have  done  it.— EZEK.  xvn. 

Man  assists  this  evident  intention  of  nature,  by  slitting  the  bark 
from  the  top  of  the  tree  to  its  base  ;  but  even  were  this  not  done, 
the  bark  would  be  cast  off  by  the  tree  itself 

Another  proof  of  design  in  this  useful  adaptation  of  the  cork  - 
tree  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact,  that  it  thrives  under  treatment  that 
would  destroy  other  trees.  The  cork-tree  will  endure  the  barking 
process  for  seven  or  eight  successive  years. 


CHAPTER    LXIV. 

1273.  Why  are  there  curious  markings  in  walnut,  maho- 
gany, rose-ivood,  satin-wood,  §c.  ? 

Because  those  markings  are  produced  by  the  various  structure  of 
the  vessels  by  which  the  wood  is  formed ;  and  by  successive  zones 
of  wood,  which  indicate  the  periods  of  growth. 

The  inclosure  of  zone  within  zone  is  owing  to  the  mode  in  which  the  wood  is 
produced,  and  the  position  in  which  it  is  deposited.  Wood  is  formed  by  the 
leaves  during  the  growing  season,  and  passes  down  towards  the  root  between 
the  bark  and  the  wood  of  the  previous  year  (if  any),  or  in  the  position  in  which 
cambium  is  effused ;  and,  as  the  leaves  more  or  less  surround  the  whole  stem, 
the  new  layer  at  length  completes  a  zone,  and  perfectly  encloses  the  wood  of  all 
former  years.  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  term  exogenous,  which  is  derived 
from  two  words  signifying  to  grow  outwardly,  for  the  stem  increases  in  thickness 
by  successive  layers  on  the  outer  side  of  the  previously-formed  wood.  That 
this  is  the  mode  of  growth  has  been  abundantly  proved  by  experiment,  and  de- 
monstrated by  accidental  discoveries.  Thus,  if  a  plate  of  metal  be  inserted 
between  the  bark  and  wood,  it  will,  in  progress  of  time,  become  inclosed  by  the 
new  wood  which  has  overlaid  them.  So  in  like  manner  if  letters  be  cut  deeply 
through  the  bark  and  into  the  wood,  the  spaces  will  not  be  filled  up  from  the 
bottom,  but  may  be  seen  in  subsequent  years  overlaid  by  new  wood.  A  state- 
ment appeared  in  a  daily  paper,  during  the  past  year,  to  the  effect  that  in  cut- 
ting down  a  tree  a  cat  had  been  discovered  inclosed  in  the  wool  of  the  trunk, 
These  facts  prove  that  the  wood  is  applied  from  without.  Again,  if  a  branch  be 
stripped  of  its  leaves  down  to  a  cortaia  point,  it  will  not  grow  above  that  point ; 
and  so,  in  like  manner,  if  branches  bo  stripped  from  one  side  of  a  tree,  the  tree 
will  not  grow  on  that  side.  If  a  circle  of  bark  be  removed  from  a  branch  above 
and  also  below  a  leaf,  it  will  be  found  that  increase  of  size  will  occur  below,  but 
not  above  that  bud ;  and  so,  likewise,  whenever  a  ring  of  bark  is  removed  from  a 
tree,  the  new  woody  fibre  will  not  proceed  from  the  lower  but  from  the  upper 
edge.— Orr's  Circle  of  the  Sciences. 

14* 


322  THE    REASON    WHY. 


"  And  when  he  sa\v  a  fis?  tree  in  the  way,  he  came  to  it,  and  found  nothing  thereon, 

but  leaves  only,  and  said  unto  it,  Let  no  fruit  grow  on  thee  henceforward  for 

ever.    And  presently  the  tree  withered  away."— MATTHEW  xxt. 

1274.  Why  have  trees  with  large  trunks  a  great  number 
of  leafy  brandies  ? 

Because  it  is  by  the  leaves  that  the  secretion  is  formed  which 
supplies  the  woody  fibre.  The  number  of  leaves  on  a  tree,  therefore, 
generally  bears  a  relation  to  the  size  of  its  trunk,  and  the  number 
of  its  branches. 

1275.  Why  have  poplar-trees  comparatively  few  branches 
and  leaves  ? 

Because  their  trunks  are  comparatively  small,  although  they 
grow  to  a  great  height. 

1276.  Why  had  the  mammoth-tree  comparatively  few  leaves 
in  relation  to  the  immense  size  of  its  bark? 

Because  the  woody  texture  of  this  tree  (Wellingtonea 
gigantea)  is  exceedingly  light  and  porous.  It  is,  in  fact,  lighter 
than  cork,  and,  therefore,  requires  less  leaf-produce  in  its  formation. 

1277.  Why  have  oak-trees  an  abundance  of  leaves? 
Because  their  wood  is  so  dense  that  they  require  a  larger  amount 

of  the  wood-forming  secretion  which  is  supplied  by  the  leaves. 

1278.  Why  are  the  trunks  of  trees  round? 

Because,  generally  speaking,  the  leaves  are  distributed  upon 
branches  around  the  trees  in  every  direction.  They  consequently 
send  down  the  wood-forming  principle  on  all  sides.  When  a  trunk 
is  unduly  developed  on  one  side,  it  may  generally  be  traced  to  the 
unequal  distribution  of  the  branches. 

1279.  What  are  exogenous  stems  ? 

Exogenous  stems  are  those  that  grow  by  the  addition  of  wood 
on  their  outer  surface,  underneath  the  bark. 

1280.  What  are  endogenous  stems  ? 

Endogenous  stems  are  those  that  grow  inwardly,  from  the 
centre.  Trees  of  this  class,  of  which  palms  are  the  bc>st 
example,  are  almost  peculiar  to  tropical  climates. 

1281.  Why  do  endogenous  stems  chiefly  abound  in  tropical 
climates  ? 

Because,  probably,  the  excessive  heat  of  those  climates  wouW 


THE    EEA80N  WHT.  323 


'*  I  have  caused  thee  to  multiply  as  the  hud  of  the  field,  and  thou  hast  increased 

and  waxen  great,  and  thou  art  come  to  excellent  ornaments."— 

EZEKIEL  xvi. 

interfere  with  the  formation  of  wood  from  the  sap  upon  the  outer 
surface. 

The  vascular  structure  of  endogenous  stems  lying  more 
abundantly  towards  their  centre,  tends  to  conserve  the  juices  which 
in  hot  climates  are  so  highly  valued.  Palm-wine  is  a  delicious  and 
cooling  beverage,  and  is  procured  from  various  kinds  of  palms,  but 
especially  from  the  cocoa-nut  palm.  Even  the  fresh  sap  is  very 
refreshing.  The  juice  is  procured  by  cutting  the  tree  in  the  upper 
part,  and  attaching  a  vessel  to  the  opening,  to  receive  the  sap. 
Its  flow  is  increased  by  cutting  off  a  slice  of  the  wood  daily. 

1282.   Why  have  endogenous  stems  no  bark? 

Because,  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  bark  in  exogenous  trees, 
is  to  protect  the  sap  from  which  the  wood  is  formed  on  the  outward 
surface ;  and  as  there  is  no  such  external  flow  of  sap  in  endogenous 
trees,  the  bark  is  unnecessary  to  them,  and  is  therefore  withheld. 
They  are  furnished  instead  with  a  thin  cuticle. 

1233.   Why  do  endogenous  stems  grow  to  a  great  height  ? 

Because,  as  the  stem  grows  from  the  centre,  it  soon  reaches  that 
limit  of  diameter  which  its  vascular  structure  is  calculated  to 
support ;  and,  therefore,  the  wood-forming  sap  is  deposited  chiefly 
at  the  top  of  the  stem,  causing  it  to  grow  to  a  considerable  height. 

1284.  Why    do    the  various  vegetable  fruits    ripen    in 
succession  ? 

Because  the  Author  of  Nature  has  thus  arranged  its  economy,  in 
order  that  the  wants  of  living  creatures  may  be  adequately  provided 
for.  Some  vegetable  productions  arrive  at  their  perfection  in  the 
spring ;  others  in  summer ;  and  others  in  autumn.  Among  the 
latter  are  many  that  require  to  come  slowly  to  maturity  after  they 
are  gathered;  by  these  the  winter  season  is  provided  for,  and  a  surplus 
of  the  winter  stock  goes  to  supply  the  natural  deficiency  of  spring. 

1285.  Why,  when  seeds  are  sown,  and  germination  begins, 
does  the  leaf-germ  seek  the  light,  and  the  root-germ  grow 
down  into  the  earth  ? 

Because  the  Creator  has  endowed  every  single  seed  with   a 


324  THE    SEASON   WHY. 


"  O  sing  unto  the  Lord  a  new  made  song ;  for  he  hath  done  marvellous  things."— 
PSALM  xcvm. 


vital  instinct  which  governs  its  development.  The  rootlet  could 
more  easily  grow  upward  than  downward,  because  of  the  looser 
earth,  and  of  the  exciting  influences  of  light  and  moisture.  Yet 
it  takes  the  contrary  course,  leaving  the  leaf-germ  to  come  up  to 
meet  the  sun-light,  and  to  send  down  to  the  stem  arid  roots,  the 
matter  needed  for  their  growth. 

Frequently,  indeed,  when  seeds  are  thrown  into  the  earth,  their 
natural  position  is  reversed,  and  when  the  germs  first  start  from 
the  seed,  the  root-germ  is  directed  upward  and  the  leaf-germ, 
downward.  What  then  occurs?  They  each  turn,  and,  in  doing 
so,  frequently  cross  each  other.  Each  goes  to  its  particular  duty — 
the  duty  that  God  appointed. 


CHAPTER    LXV. 

1286.  Why  are  the  seeds  of  plants  indigestible  ? 

Because  they  are  encased  in  a  hard  covering  upon  which  the 
gastric  juice  of  animals  takes  no  effect.  This  provision  has  been 
made  by  the  Creator,  for  the  preservation  of  seeds,  the  productions 
of  which  are  so  essential  to  animal  life. 

The  gastric  juice  can  dissolve'  any  other  part  of  the  plant,  even 
the  woody  fibre,  and  yet  upon  the  seed  it  takes  no  effect.  When, 
however,  the  seed  is  crushed,  and,  thereby,  the  vital  principle  de- 
stroyed, so  that  no  plant  can  spring  from  it,  the  gastric  juice  acts 
upon  it,  and  it  is  soon  dissolved. 

Hence  graminivorous  birds  are  provided  with  gizzards  to  break 
the  protecting  coats  of  the  grain  ;  and  animals  that  feed  on  seeds 
and  nuts  strip  them  of  their  shells  and  husks. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  the  succulent  fruits,  such  as  the  straw- 
berry, the  raspberry,  currant,  apple,  orange,  melon,  &o.,  and 
which,  from  their  very  nature,  are  likely  to  attract  animals  to  use 
them,  and  in  eating  which  the  seeds  are  likely  to  be  swallowed,  they 
are  fortified  by  a  doubly-protective  coating ;  the  pips  of  the  apple, 
orange,  &c.,  and  the  seeds  of  the  strawberry  and  raspberry,  pnss 
through  the  digestive  organs,  not  only  unharmed,  but  their 


THE    REASON    WHY.  32.1 


1  And  it  was  commanded  them  that  they  should  not  hurt  the  grass  of  the  earth, 
neither  any  green  thing,  neither  any  tree." — REVELATION  ix. 


germinating  powers  are  even  improved  by  the  warmth  and 
trituration  of  the  stomach,  -Indeed,  the  stomachs  of  quadrupeds 
and  birds  have  been  made  the  vehicles  of  propagating  plants,  and 
distributing  them  to  the  widest  geographical  latitudes.  It  is  even 
said  of  some  seeds  that  they  will  not  germinate  until  they  have 
passed  through  the  digestive  ogans  of  an  animal. 

1287.  Why  do  animals  that  graze,  crop  the  tender  Hades 
of  grass,  but  avoid  the  tall  stems  ? 

Because  they  are  tempted  by  the  greater  sweetness  and  tenderness 
of  the  young  blades  ;  and  in  this  temptation  a  very  important  end 
is  served ;  for,  by  avoiding  the  stems  that  have  grown  up,  the  animals 
spare  the  matured  plant  by  which  seeds  are  borne,  and  by  which 
the  supply  of  food  is  to  be  continued. 

1288.  Why  do  the  eggs  of  butterflies  lie  dormant  during 
the  winter  ? 

Because  the  coldness  of  the  winter  would  be  fatal  to  the  life  of 

the  young  insects ;  and  the  absence  of  vegetation  would  leave  the 

caterpillars  to  perish  of  starvation,  if  they  were  developed  during 
the  winter  months. 


Fig.  70.— CATEKPILLAK  FEEDING. 

1289.   Why  do  caterpillars  appear  in  the  spring  ? 

Because  the  increasing  warmth  of  the  sun  developes  the  living 
embryo,  at  the  same  time  that  it  developes  the  vegetable  germ. 
The  warmth,  therefore,  that  calls  the  caterpillar  from  its  embryo 
sleep,  also  kindles  the  germinating  power  of  the  vegetable  upon 
which  it  is  destined  to  feed.  The  worm  awakes  aud  finds  the 
bountiful  table  of  nature  spread  for  it. 


326  THE    SEASON    WHY. 


"Thou  shalt  plant  vineyards,  and  dress  them, but  shalt  neither  drink  of  tho 

wine,  nor  gather  the  grapes :  for  the  worms  shall  eat  them."— 

DEUTERONOMY  xxviu. 

1290.    Why  does  the  caterpillar  eat  voraciously  ? 

Because  it  grows  rapidly,  and  a  large  amount  of  vegetable 
matter  is  necessary  to  supply  the  rapid  growth  of  its  animal 
substance.  Caterpillars  in  the  course  of  a  month  devour  60,000 
times  their  own  weight  of  aliment. 


Fig.  77.— THE  UNDER  8II>E  OP          Fig.  78.— THE  SAME  CHET8ALIS,  WITH  PAST 
THE  CHRYSALIS  OF  THE  PEA-  OP   ITS    SHEATH    RAISED    TO    SHOW  TUB 

COCK  BUTTERFLY.  PARTIALLY-FORMED  WINGS,  &C. 

1291.  Why  do  caterpillars  pass  into  the  state  of  the 
chrysalis  ? 

Because  they  are  thereby  prepared  for  the  new  existence  which 
they  are  about  to  enjoy  ;  new  organs  must  be  perfected  in  them  to 
adapt  them  to  the  altered  conditions  of  their  lives. 

Because,  also,  in  the  transformation  of  their  bodies,  differing 
materially  from  the  laws  of  existence  that  pertain  to  other  creatures, 
the  Creator  affords  another  illustration  of  his  Omnipotence. 

Because,  also,  during  the  stage  that  the  insect  sleeps  in  the 
chrysalis,  the  flowers  and  their  sweet  juices,  upon  which  the  fly  is  to 
feed,  are  being  prepared  for  it,  just  as,  when  it  was  sleeping  in  the 
egg,  the  green  food  was  being  prepared  for  the  caterpillar.  When, 
therefore,  the  beautiful  fly  spreads  its  silken  wings,  it  finds  a  second 
time  that,  while  it  has  slept,  its  meal  has  been  prepared,  and  it  now 
flies  away  joyously  to  feed  upon  the  milk  and  honey  of  beautiful 
flowers  which,  at  the  time  it  passed  into  the  chrysalis,  had  not  yet 
unfolded  their  petals. 


THE    SEASON    WHY.  327 


"  For  the  moth  shall  eat  them  up  like  a  garment,  and  the  worm  shall  eat  them 

like  wool :  but  my  righteousness  shall  be  for  ever,  and  my  salvation 

from  generation  to  generation."— ISAIAH  LI. 

Paley  observes,  that  "  the  metamorphosis  of  insects  from  grubs 
into  moths  and  flies,  is  an  astonishing  process.  A  hairy  caterpillar 
is  transformed  into  a  butterfly.  Observe  the  change.  We  have 
four  beautiful  wings  where  there  were  none  before ;  a  tubular 
proboscis,  in  the  place  of  a  mouth  with  jaws  and  teeth ;  six  long 
legs,  instead  of  fourteen  feet.  In  another  case,  we  see  a  white, 
smooth,  soft  worm,  turned  into  a  black,  hard,  crustaceous  beetle, 
with  gauze  wings.  These,  as  I  said,  are  astonishing  processes,  and 
must  require,  as  it  should  seem,  a  proportionably  artificial  apparatus. 


Fig.  79.— THE  PEACOCK  BUITEBFLY. 

The  hypothesis  which  appears  to  me  most  probable,  is  that,  in  the 
grub,  there  exists  at  the  same  time  three  animals,  one  within 
another,  all  nourished  by  the  same  digestion,  and  by  a  communica- 
ting circulation ;  but  in  different  stages  of  maturity.  The  latest 
discoveries  made  by  naturalists,  seem  to  favour  this  supposition. 
The  insect,  already  equipped  with  wings,  is  descried  under  the 
membranes  both  of  the  worm  and  nymph.  In  some  species,  the 
proboscis,  the  antennae,  the  limbs,  and  wings  of  the  fly,  have  been 
observed  to  be  folded  up  within  the  body  of  the  caterpillar ;  and  with 
such  nicety  as  to  occupy  a  small  space  only  under  the  two  first 
wings.  This  being  so,  the  outermost  animal,  which,  besides  its 
own  proper  character,  serves  as  an  integument  to  the  other  two, 
being  the  farthest  advanced,  dies,  as  we  suppose,  and  drops  off  first. 
The  second,  the  pupa  or  chrysalis,  then  offers  itself  to  observation. 
This  also,  in  its  turn,  dies ;  its  dead  and  brittle  husk  falls  to  pioces, 
and  makes  way  for  the  appearance  of  the  fly  or  moth.  Now,  if  this 
be  the  case,  or  indeed  whatever  explication  be  adopted,  we  have  a 


328  THE    SEASON   WHY. 


1  That  which  the  palmer-worm  hath  left  hath  the  locust  eateu ;  and  that  which 

the  locust  hath  left  hath  the  canker-worm  eaten ;  arid  that  which  the 

canker-worm  hath  left  hath  the  caterpillar  eaten." — JOEL  i. 


prospective  contrivance  of  the  most  curious  kind  ;  we  have  organi- 
sations three  deep  ;  yet  a  vascular  system,  which  supplies  nutrition, 
growth,  and  life,  to  all  of  them  together." 

Lord  Brougham,  in  a  note  upon  the  above,  does  not  support 
Pnley's  view.  He  says  "It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  parts 
which  are  to  appear  in  the  perfect  insect  do  not  exist  in  the  larvae, 
where  there  is  not  much  difference  between  the  larva  and  pupa, 
excepting  at  the  time  just  previous  to  its  becoming  a  pupa,  at 
which  time  the  larva  is  motionless  and  torpid.  The  caterpillar  of  a 
moth,  when  about  to  turn  into  a  pupa,  provides  for  the  protection 
of  the  latter  state,  either  by  surrounding  itself  with  a  web,  or  by 
some  other  means.  Soon  after  this  is  accomplished,  the  caterpillar 
becomes  motionless,  or  nearly  so ;  it  can  neither  eat  nor  crawl.  At 
this  time,  and  not  before,  the  parts  of  the  pupa  are  forming  within 
the  skin  of  the  caterpillar,  which  may  be  easily  seen  by  dissection." 

It  appears  to  the  author,  however,  that  Paley  is  partially  right, 
and  Lord  Brougham  totally  wrong,  in  these  remarks.  When  Lord 
Brougham  asserts  that  the  parts  of  the  pupa  are  forming  within 
the  skin  of  the  caterpillar  at  that  time  when  the  transformation 
begins,  "  and  not  before,  which  may  be  easily  seen  by  dissection," 
he  forgets,  that  although  in  some  instances  it  is  the  first  moment 
when,  to  the  human  eye,  the  organs  of  the  new  creature  become 
perceptible,  that  the  "  three  deep  "  nature  which  Paley  attributes 
to  the  grub,  must  really  have  existed  in  the  egg — that  the  butterfly 
originated  in  the  egg,  as  certainly  as  did  the  caterpillar,  or  the 
crysalis,  and  that  unless  that  egg  had  possessed  its  three  myste- 
rious embryos,  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  the  grub  to  have 
progressed  to  the  stages  of  transformation.  No  one  has  ever  known 
the  embryo  of  a  bird's  egg  to  pass  through  three  distinct  and  dis- 
similar states  of  existence ;  nor  has  any  one  ever  known  the  embryo 
of  the  butterfly's  egg  to  stop  short  at  either  of  the  stages,  if  the 
proper  conditions  of  its  existence  and  development  were  supplied  to 
it.  Why  ?  Because  the  embryo  of  the  insect  has  a  threefold 
nature,  while  that  of  the  bird  is  single. 


THE    EEASON   WHY.  329 


*  They  shall  cut  down  her  forest,  saith  the  Lord,  though  it  cannot  be  searched ; 

because  they  are  more  than  the  grasshoppers,  and  are  innumerable." — 

JEREMIAH  XLVI. 


CHAPTER  LXVI. 

1292.  Why    does    the    caterpillar  become   torpid    when 
passing  into  the  state  of  the  chrysalis  ? 

Because  in  all  probability,  where  the  difference  between  the  first 
and  the  ultimate  form  is  considerable,  the  organs  of  the  insect 
haring  to  undergo  great  changes,  it  would  suffer  considerable  pain. 
Torpor  comes  upon  the  insect,  it  is  thrown  into  a  state  similar  to 
that  of  a  person  who  has  inhaled  chloroform  •  and  after  what  has, 
in  all  probability,  proved  a  pleasant  dream,  the  insect  awakes  to 
find  itself  changed  and  beautified. 

1293.  Why  are   the  pupcs  of  grasshoppers    and    other 
insects,  when  about  to  undergo  transformation,  still  active 
and  sensitive  ? 

Because,  as  there  is  but  a  slight  difference  between  the  form 
which  they  have  in  the  pupa  state,  and  that  which  they  ultimately 
assume,  they  do  not  require  the  state  of  torpidity  to  save  them  from 
pain,  nor  to  arrest  their  movements  while  their  organs  are  being 
changed.  With  them  the  outer  slcin  is  thrown  off,  and  they  are 
then  perfect  insects. 

1294.  Why  do  caterpillars,  when  about  to  pass  through  the 
chrysalis  state,  attach  themselves  to  the  leaves  of  plants,  8fc.  ? 

Because  they  know  instinctively  that  for  a  time  they  will  be 
unable  to  controul  their  own  movements,  and  to  avoid  danger. 
They  therefore  choose  secure  and  dry  places,  underneath  leaves,  or 
in  the  crevices  of  old  and  dry  walls,  and  there  they  firmly  attach 
themselves,  to  await  the  time  of  their  liberation. 

1295.  Why  do  insects  attach  their  eggs,  to  leaves  fyc.  ? 

Because,  as  the  eggs  have  to  be  preserved  during  the  winter,  the 
insect  attaches  them  to  some  surface  which  will  be  a  protection  to 
them.  Generally  speaking,  the  eggs  are  attached  to  the  permanent 
stems  of  plants,  and  not  to  those  leafy  portions  which  are  liable  to 
fall  and  decay.  The  spider  weaves  a  silken  bag  in  which  it  deposits 
its  eggs,  and  then  it  hangs  the  bag  in  a  sheltered  situation.  Naturg 


330  THE    SEASON    WHY. 


1  Lay  up  for  yourselves  treasures  in  heaven,  where  neither  moth  nor  rust  doth 
corrupt,  and  where  thieves  do  not  break  through  and  steal."— MATT.  vi. 


keeps  her  butterflies,  moths,  and  caterpillars,  locked  up  during  the 
whiter,  in  their  egg-state;  and  we  have  to  admire  the  various 
devices  to  which,  if  we  may  so  speak,  the  same  nature  has  resorted 
for  the  security  of  the  egg.  Many  insects  enclose  their  eggs  in  a 
silken  web  j  others  cover  them  with  a  coat  of  hair,  torn  from  their 
own  bodies  ;  some  glue  them  together  ;  and  others,  like  the  moth 
of  the  silkworm,  glue  them  to  the  leaves  upon  which  they  are 
deposited,  that  they  may  not  be  shaken  off  by  the  wind,  or  washed 
away  by  rain ;  some  again  make  incisions  into  leaves,  and  hide  an 
egg  in  each  incision ;  whilst  some  envelope  their  eggs  with  a  soft 
substance,  which  forms  the  first  aliment  of  the  young  animal ;  and 
some  again  make  a  hole  in  the  earth,  and,  having  stored  it  with  a 
quantity  of  proper  food,  deposit  their  eggs  in  ib. 

1296.  Why  do  butterflies  fly  by  day  ? 

Because  they  are  organised  to  enjoy  light  and  warmth,  and  they 
live  upon  the  sweets  of  flowers  which  by  day  are  most  accessible. 

1297.  Why  do  moths  fly  by  night  ? 

Because  they  are  organised  to  enjoy  subdued  light  and  cool  air ; 
and  as  they  take  very  little  food  during  the  short  life  they  have  in 
the  winged  state,  they  find  sufficient  by  night.  Some  of  the  moths, 
like  that  of  the  silk- worm,  take  no  food  from  the  time  they  escape 
from  the  chrysalis  until  they  die. 

Because,  also,  they  form  the  food  of  bats,  owls,  and  other  of  the 
night-flying  tribes. 

1298.  Why  are  the  bodies  of  moths  generally  covered  with 
a  very  thick  down  ? 

Because,  as  they  fly  by  night,  they  are  liable  to  the  effects  of  cold 
and  damp.  The  moths,  therefore,  are  nearly  all  of  them  covered 
with  a  very  thick  down,  quite  distinguishable  from  the  lighter  down 
of  butterflies. 

1299.  Why  do  moths  fly  against  the  candle  flame  ? 
Because  their  eyes  are  organised  to  bear  only  a  small  amount  of 

light.  When,  therefore,  they  come  within  the  light  of  a  candle, 
their  sight  is  overpowered  and  their  vision  confused ;  and  as  they 
cannot  distinguish  objects,  they  pursue  the  light  itself,  and  fly  against 
the  flame. 


THE    REASON    WHY.  331 


"  Let  him  that  glorieth  c-Tory  in  this  that  he  understandeth  and  knoweth  me, 

that  I  am  the  Lord  which  exercise  loving-kindness,  judgment,  and  righteousness 

in  the  earth  :  for  in  these  things  I  delight,  saith  the  Lord."— JEB.  ix. 


1300.  Why  do  insects  multiply  so  numerously  ? 

Because  they  form  the  food  of  larger  animals,  and  especially  of 
birds.  A  single  pair  of  sparrows  and  a  nest  of  young  ones  have 
been  estimated  to  consume  upwards  of  three  thousand  insects  in.  a 
week. 

1301.  Why  does  the  "  death-watch'''  make  a  ticking  noise? 
Because  the  insect  is  one  of  the  beetle  tribe,  having  a  horny  case 

upon  its  head,  with  ivhich  it  tags  tipon  any  hard  substance,  the 
ticking  is  the  call  of  the  insect  to  its  species,  just  as  the  noise  made 
by  the  cricket  is  a  note  of  communication  with  other  crickets. 

There  is  a  superstition  connected  with  tho  death-watch,  which,  like  most  super- 
stitions, is  hased  upon  the  theory  of  probabilities.  The  death-watch  is  usually 
heard  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  and  a  superstition  runs  to  the  effect  that  some 
one  in  the  house  will  die  before  the  year  has  ended.  Persons  who  are  super- 
stitious are  never  very  strict  in  the  interpretation  of  their  predictions ;  and 
therefore,  whether  a  person  dies  in  the  house  or  out  of  it,  in  the  same  room 
where  the  death-watch  was  heard,  or  across  the  wide  Atlantic,  so  that  there 
be  some  kind  of  relationship,  or  even  acquaintance,  between  the  person  who 
hears  the  omen,  and  the  person  dying,  the  event  is  sure  to  be  connected  with 
the  prophetic  sounds  of  the  death-watch.  Little  weens  the  small  timber- 
boring  beetle,  when  he  is  tapping  gently  to  call  his  mate,  and  perhaps  peeping 
into  every  corner  and  crevice  to  find  her,  that  he  is  sending  dismay  into  the 
heart  of  some  superstitious  listener,  who,  in  ignorance  of  a  simple  fact,  over- 
whelms herself  with  an  imaginary  grief. 

1302.  Why  are  insects  in  thejlrst  stage,  after  leaving  the 
egg,  said  to  be  in  the  "  larva  "  state  ? 

Because  the  term  larva  is  derived  from  the  Latin  larvated, 
meaning  masked,  clothed  as  with  a  mask ;  the  term  is  meant  to 
express  that  the  future  insect  is  disguised  in  its  first  form. 

1303.  Why  are  insects  in  the  second  state  said  to  be  in 
the  "pupa"  state? 

Because  the  term  is  derived  from  the  Latin  pupa,  from  a  slight 
resemblance  in  the  manner  in  which  the  insects  are  enclosed,  to 
that  in  which  it  was  the  fashion  of  the  ancients  to  bandage  their 
infants. 

1304.  Why  are  insects  in  the  "pupa"  stage  also  called 
'•  chrysalides?" 

Because,  as  the  Latin  term  implies,  it  is  adorned  with  gems. 
Many  chrysalides  arc  studded  with  golden  and  pearl-like  spots. 


332  THE   SEASON   WHY. 


'Thou  hast  set  all  the  bordeis  of  the  earth:  thou  hast  made  summer  and 
winter."— PSALM  JLXXIV. 


1305.  Why  are  the  perfect  insects  said  to  be  in  the 
"nymph"  state  ? 

Because  their  joyful  existence,  and  their  beautiful  forms,  give 
them  a  fancied  resemblance  to  the  nymphs  of  the  heathen 
mythology.  The  nymphs  were  supposed  goddesses  of  the  moun  - 
tains,  forests,  meadows,  and  waters. 

This  term  has  generally,  but  very  improperly,  been  also  applied  to  the  pupa 
state,  so  that  pupa,  chrysalis,  and  nymph  have  all  been  employed  to  represent 
one  state.  This  is  obviously  an  error,  as  there  is  nothing  in  the  condition  of  tho 
pupa  or  chrysalis  that  can  at  all  accord  with  the  mythological  idea  of  a  nymph, 
and  which,  in  reference  to  the  beautiful  and  joyous  fly,  finds  a  much  truer 
application. 


CHAPTER   LXVIL 

1306.  Whence  does  the  snail  obtain  its  shell  ? 

Young    snails  come   from  the   egg  with   a  shell  upon    their 
backs. 

1307.  Sow  does  the  shell  grow  with  the  increase  of  size 
of  the  animal  ? 

The  soft  slime  which  is  yielded  by  the  body   of  the   animal, 
hardens  upon  the  orifice  of  the  shell,  and  thus  increases  its  size. 


Fig.  80.— COMMON  GARDEy  8JTAIL. 

1308.   Why  is  the  shell  spiral  ? 

Partly  because  of  its  original  formation  ;  but  also  because,  as  the 
thett  grows,  the  opening  is  elongated;  and  thrown  up,  causing  the 


THE   REASON    WHY.  333 


"  Notwithstanding  they  hearkened  not  unto  Moses  ;  but  some  of  them  left  it 

until  the  morning,  and  it  bred  worms,  and  stank :  and  Moses  was  wrath 

with  them." — EXODUS  xvi. 

Kpiral  body  of  the  shell  to  turn,  and  so  to  wind  its  growth  around 
the  centre. 

1309.  Why  has  the  snail  four  tentacula  attached  to  its 
head? 

Because  the  insect,  having  no  other  limbs,  is  provided  with 
those  projecting  members,  the  lower  two  serving  as  feelers 
and  the  upper  two  also  as  feelers  and  eyes.  These,  projecting 
in  the  front  of  the  animal,  impart  to  it  a  consciousness  of  surrounding 
objects,  and  especially  of  those  which  lie  in  its  path. 

1310.  Why  is  the  snail  able  to  move,  without  feet  ? 

Because  it  has  attached  to  its  body  a  fringe  of  muscular  skin, 
which  is  capable  of  considerable  contraction  and  expansion,  and  by 
alternately  stretching  and  shortening  this,  the  snail  is  able  to  draw 
himself  along. 

1311.  Why  do  we  see  no  snails  in  the  winter  time  ? 
Because  they  bury  themselves  in  the  ground,  or  in  holes,  where 

they  remain  in  a  torpid  state  for  several  months.  Before  th<>y 
enter  into  the  torpid  state,  they  form  with  their  slimy  secretion,  and 
with  some  earthy  matters  which  they  collect,  a  strong  cement  with 
which  they  seal  up  the  opening  to  their  shells. 

1312.  Why  can  snails  live  in  shells  thus  sealed  ? 

Because  they  leave,  in  the  thin  wall  by  which  they  close  them- 
selves in,  a  small  hole,  too  small  to  admit  water,  but  large  enough 
to  let  in  sufficient  air  to  carry  on  their  feeble  respiration  during 
their  winter  sleep. 

1313.  Why  do  insects  abound  in  putrid  waters,  and  in 
decaying  substances  ? 

Because  they  have  been  endowed  with  appetites  and  with 
constitutions  that  enable  them  to  live  upon  and  to  enjoy  corrupt 
matter.  In  this  point  of  view  the  maggots  of  flies  are  exceedingly 
useful;  a  dead  carcass  is  speedily  threaded  by  them  in  every 
direction  ;  thus  that  corrupt  matter  which,  in  a  large  mass,  would 
poison  the  air,  is  taken  up  in  small  portions  by  millions  of  living 
bodies,  and  by  them  dispersed,  and  becomes  innoxious. 


334 


THE   REASON    WHY, 


'  For  he  maketh  small  the  drops  of  water :  they  pour  down  rain  according  to 
the  vapour  thereof."— JOB  xxxv. 


1314.  Why  do  we  see,  in  tanks  of  rain  water,  insects 
rising  to  the  surface  ? 

Because  numerous  insects  pass  through  their  first  stages  of 
existence  in  water,  and  among  them  the  common  gnat.  The  gnats 
of  the  previous  season  having  deposited  their  eggs  on  the  sides  of 
the  water-butt,  the  warm  water  developes  them,  and  the  larvae  of 
the  gnats  appear  (Fig.  81 ;  c  natural  size  of  larva  ;  b  larva 
magnified). 


Fig.  81.— LAEVA   AND   PTTPA   OP    GNAT. 

(Greatly  magnified.) 

1315.  Why  do  they  continually  rise  to  the  surface  of  the 
water  ? 

Because  they  require  to  breathe  air,  and  therefore  they  come  up 
to  the  surface,  where,  elevating  the  tube  (b)  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  they  are  enabled  to  breathe. 

1316.  Why  do  some  appear  to  have  larger  heads  than 
others  ? 

Those  that  have  apparently  larger  heads,  and  that  breathe 
through  tubes  attached  to  their  heads  (d)  are  in  the  pupa,  or 
second  stage  of  development,  and  underneath  the  large  shield  by 


THE    EEASON   WHY.  335 


1  Because  thy  loving  kindness  is  better  than  life,  my  lips  shall  praise  thee." — 
PSALM  LXIII. 


which  their  heads  are  marked,  their  wings,  feet,  &c.,  are  being 
formed. 

1317.  Why,  when  the  water  is  disturbed,  do   the   larvae 
descend  more  rapidly  than  the  pupce  ? 

Because  the    pupae  are    in    a  torpid  condition,  awaiting  the 
formation  of  their  perfect  organs. 

1318.  Why  are  the  flies  able  to  escape  from  the  ivater  ? 
Because,  as  their  formation  becomes  perfected,  and  the  fluids  of 

the  body  of  the  pupa  become  absorbed  in  the  production  of  the 
light  texture  of  the  wings,  &c.,  the  body  and  its  case  become 
lighter  than  the  water,  and  rise  and  float  upon  the  surface.  The 
pupa-case  then  forms  a  natural  boat,  from  which  the  fly  emerges, 
an*'  spreading  its  wings,  enters  upon  the  final  state  of  its  existence. 


Fig.  82.— THE  PEEFECT  GNAT.  ESCAPING  FBOM  THE  PUPA-CASE. 

(Greatly  magnified.) 

This  interesting  metamorphosis  may  be  seen  going  on  in  the  summer  time, 
iu  every  pond,  brook,  and  reservoir.  A  fine  sunny  morning  calls  up  millions  of 
these  little  boats  from  beneath  the  surface,  and  the  diver  within  that  wonderful 
little  bell  breaks  its  sealed  doors,  and  flies  away  to  enjoy  the  bright  sunshine. 

1319.   Why  are  beetles  denominated  "  coleoptera?" 
Because  they  have  wings  protected  by  horny  sheaths  ;  the  terra 
coleoptera  signifies  wings  in  a  sheath. 


336 


THE   SEASON    WHY. 


"  They  shall  lie  down  in  the  dust ;  and  the  worms  shall  cover  them."— JOB  xxi 


1320.   Why  have  beetles  hard  horny  wing-cases  ? 

Because  they  live  underground,  or  in  holes  excavated  in  wood, 
&c.  If,  therefore,  their  wings  were  not  protected  by  a  hard  and 
firm  covering-,  they  would  be  constantly  liable  to  destruction  from 
the  movement  of  the  insect  within  hard  and  rough  bodies. 


Pig.  83.— STAG-BEETLE,    SHOWING    ITS    WINGS    UNFOLDED,    AND  THE  WI3VO- 
CASES  OPEN. 

The  elytra,  or  scaly  wings  of  the  genus  of  scarabams,  or  beetle,  furnish  an 
example  of  this  kind.  The  true  wing  of  the  animal  is  a  light,  transparent 
membrane,  finer  than  the  finest  gauze,  and  not  unlike  it.  It  is  also,  when 
expanded,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  very  large.  In  order  to 
protect  this  delicate  structure,  and,  perhaps,  also  to  preserve  it  in  a  due  state  of 
suppleness  and  humidity,  a  strong,  hard  case  is  giv^en  to  it,  in  the  shape  of  the 
horny  wing  which  we  call  the  elytron.  When  the  animal  is  at  rest,  the  gauze 
wings  lie  folded  up  under  this  impenetrable  shield.  When  the  beetle  prepares 
for  flying,  he  raises  the  integument,  and  spreads  out  his  thin  membrane  to  the 
air.  Aud  it  cannot  be  observed  without  admiration,  what  a  tissue  of  cordage, 
i.  <9.  of  muscular  tendons,  must  run  in  various  and  complicated,  but  determinate 
directions,  along  this  fine  surface,  in  order  to  enable  the  auimal,  either  to  gather 


THE    EEASON    TTHY.  337 


"  The  Lord  is  good ;  his  mercy  is  everlasting ;  and  his  truth  endureth  to  all 
generations."— PSAXH  c. 


it  up  into  a  certain  precise  form,  whenever  it  desires  to  place  its  wings  under 
the  shelter  which  nature  hath  given  to  them,  or  to  expand  again  their  folds 
when  wanted  for  action. 

In  some  insects,  the  elytra  cover  the  whole  body ;  in  others,  half;  in  others 
only  a  small  part  of  it ;  but  in  all,  they  completely  hide  and  cover  the  true 
wings.  Also, 

Many,  or  most  of  the  beetle  species  lodge  in  holes  in  the  earth,  environed  by 
hard,  rough  substances,  and  have  frequently  to  squeeze  their  way  through 
narrow  passages;  in  which  situation,  wings  so  tender,  and  so  large,  could 
scarcely  have  escaped  injury,  without  both  a  firm  covering  to  defend  them,  and 
the  capacity  of  folding  themselves  up  under  its  protection. 

1321.  Why  have  many  of  the  beetle  tribe  large  strong 
horns ? 

Because,  as  they  live  in  holes  in  the  earth,  or  in  excavations  in 
wood,  they  use  their  horns  to  dig  out  their  places  of  retreat. 

1322.  Why  has  the  giraffe  a  small  head  ? 

Because,  being  set  upon  the  end  of  a  very  long  neck,  the  animal 
would  be  unable  to  raise  it  if  it  were  heavy. 

1323.  Why  has  the  giraffe  a  long  neck  ? 
Because  it  feeds  upon  the  branches  of  tall  trees. 

1324.  Why  has  the  giraffe  a  long  and  flexible  tongue  ? 
Because  it  is  thereby  enabled  to  lay  hold  of  the  tender  twigs  and 

branches,  and  draw  them  into  its  mouth,  avoiding  the  coarser 
parts  of  the  branches. 

1325.  Why    are    the    nostrils   of  the  giraffe  small  and 
narrow,  and  studded  with  hairs  ? 

Because  the  hairs  and  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  nasal  passages 
are  designed  as  a  protection  against  the  insects  which  inhabit  the 
boughs  of  the  trees  upon  which  the  giraffe  feeds ;  and  also  against 
the  sands  of  the  desert,  which  storms  raise  into  almost  suffocating 
clouds. 


1326.  The  distribution  of  animals,  or  Zoological  Geography,  is  a  of  great 
interest,  and  should  be  carefully  studied  in  connection  with  Botanical  Geo- 
graphy (sea  1208).  The  highest  department  of  the  animal  kingdom  (writes  the 
Rev.  W.  Milner)  commences  with  the  class  of  Birds,  which  may  be  naturally 
divided  into  the  three  great  orders  of  serial,  terrestrial,  and  aquatic.  Aggre. 

15 


338 


THE    REASON    WHY. 


Bless  the  Lord,  all  his  works,  in  all  places  of  his  dominion :  bless  the  Lord,  O 
my  soul."— PSALM  cm. 


gation  into  immense  flocks  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  several  species,  espe- 
cially of  the  aquatic  order,  which  form  separate  colonies,  building  their  nests  in 
the  same  state,  though  other  spots  equally  adapted  are  at  no  great  distance. 


Fig.  8k-GIKAFFE  FEEDING. 

Hence  the  Vogel-bergs,  or  bird -rocks  of  the  northern  seas,  one  of  which  at  West- 
mannsharn  in  the  Faroe  group  of  islands,  seldom  intruded  upon  by  man,  pre- 
sents a  most  extraordinary  spectacle  to  the  \isitor.  The  Vogel-berg  lies  in  a 
frightful  chasm  in  the  precipitous  shores  of  the  island,  which  rise  to  the  height 
of  a  thousand  feet,  only  accessible  from  the  sea  by  a  narrow  passage.  Hero  con- 
gregate a  host  of  bird**.  Thousands  of  guillemots  and  auks  swim  in  groups 


THE   EEASON    WHY.  339 


He  rained  flesh  upon  them  as  dust,  and  feathered  fowls  like  as  the  sand  of  the 
sea."— PSALM  LXXVIII. 


around  the  boat  which  conveys  man  to  their  domain,  look  curiously  at  him,  and 
vanish  beneath  the  water  to  rise  in  his  immediate  neighbourhood.  The  black 
guillemot  comes  close  to  the  very  oars.  The  seal  stretches  his  head  abive  the 
waves,  not  comprehending  what  has  disturbed  the  repose  of  his  asylum,  while 
the  rapacious  skua  pursues  the  puffin  and  gull.  High  in  the  air  the  birds  seem 
like  bees  clustering  about  the  rocks,  whilst  lower  they  fly  past  so  close  that  they 
might  be  knocked  down  with  a  stick.  But  not  less  strange  is  the  domicile  of 
this  colony.  On  some  low  rocks  scarcely  projecting  above  the  water  sit  tho 
glossy  cormorants,  turning  their  long  necks  on  every  side,  Next  are  the  skua 
gulls,  regarded  with  an  anxious  eye  by  the  kittiwakes  above.  Nest  follows  nest 
in  crowded  rows  along  the  whole  breadth  of  the  rock,  and  nothing  is  visible  but 
the  heads  of  the  mothers  and  the  white  rocks  between,  A  little  higher  on  the 
narrow  shelves  sit  the  guillemots  and  auks,  arranged  as  0:1  parade,  with  their 
white  breasts  to  the  sea,  and  so  close  that  a  hailstone  could  not  pass  between 
them.  The  puffins  take  the  highest  station,  and,  though  scarcely  visible,  betray 
themselves  by  their  flying  backwards  and  forwards.  The  noise  of  such  a  multi- 
tude of  birds  is  confounding,  and  in  vain  a  person  asks  a  question  of  his  nearest 
neighbour.  The  harsh  tones  of  the  kittiwakes  are  heard  above  the  whole,  the 
intervals  being  filled  with  the  monotonous  note  of  the  auk,  and  the  softer  voice 
of  the  guillemot.  When  Graba,  from  whose  travels  this  description  is  principally 
drawn,  visited  the  Vogel-berg,  he  was  tempted  by  the  sight  of  a  crested  cormo- 
rant to  fire  a  gun,  but  what  became  of  it,  he  remarks,  it  was  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain. The  air  was  darkened  by  the  birds  roused  from  their  repose.  Thousands 
hastened  out  of  the  chasm  with  a  frightful  noise,  and  spread  themselves  over 
the  ocean.  The  puffins  came  wandering  from  their  holes,  and  regarded  the 
universal  confusion  with  comic  gestures.  The  kittiwakes  remained  composedly 
in  their  nests,  whilst  the  cormorants  tumbled  headlong  into  the  sea.  Similar 
great  congregations  of  the  feathered  race  appear  where  the  shores  are  rocky 
high,  and  precipitous,  but  this  is  strikingly  the  case,  whcro 

"  The  northern  ocean,  in  vast  whirls. 

Boils  round  the  naked  melancholy  isles 
Of  farthest  Thule;  and  the  Atlantic  surga 
Pours  in  among  the  stormy  Hebrides. 
Who  can  recount  what  transmigrations  there 
Are  annual  made  ?  what  nations  come  and  go? 
And  how  the  living  clouds  on  clouds  arise? 
Infinite  wings !  till  all  the  plume-dark  air 
And  rude  resounding  shore  are  one  wild  cry." 

1327.  Most  terrestrial  birds,  unacquainted  with  man,  exhibit  a  remarkable 
tameness,  and  are  slow  in  acquiring  a  dread  of  him,  even  after  repeated  lessons 
that  danger  is  to  be  apprehended  from  his  neighbourhood.  Mr.  Darwin  speaks 
of  a  gun  as  almost  superfluous  in  the  unfrequented  districts  of  South  America, 
for  with  its  muzzle  he  pushed  a  hawk  off  the  branch  of  a  tree.  Once,  whilo 
lying  down,  a  mocking  thrush  alighted  on  the  edge  of  a  pitcher,  made  of  the 
shell  of  a  tortoise,  which  he  was  holding  in  his  hand,  and  began  very  leisurely  to 
sip  the  water,  even  alitwing  him  to  handle  it  while  seated  on  the  vessel.  In 
Charles  Island,  which  had  been  colonised  about  six  years,  he  saw  a  boy  sitting 
by  a  well  with  a  switch  in  his  hand,  with  which  he  killed  the  doves  and  finches 
as  they  came  to  drink ;  and  for  some  time  had  been  constantly  in  the  habit 
of  waiting  by  the  well  for  the  same  purpose,  to  provide  himself  with  his  dinners. 
In  the  Falkland  Islands,  at  Bourbon,  and  at  Tristan  d'Acunha,  the  same  tame- 


340  THE    REASON    WHY. 


4  As  a  bird  that  wandereth  from  her  nest ;  so  is  a  man  that  wandereth  from  his 
place."— PSALM  xxvii. 


ness  was  noticed  by  the  early  visitors.  On  the  other  hand,  the  small  birds  in 
the  arctic  regions  of  America,  which  have  never  been  persecuted,  exhibit  the 
anomalous  fact  of  great  wildness.  From  a  review  of  various  facts,  Mr.  Darwin 
concludes,  "  first,  that  the  wildness  of  birds  with  regard  to  man  is  a  particular 
instinct  directed  against  him,  and  not  dependent  on  any  general  degree  of 
caution  arising  from  other  sources  of  danger ;  secondly,  that  it  is  not  acquired 
by  individual  birds  in  a  short  time,  even  when  much  persecuted ;  but  that  in 
the  course  of  successive  generations  it  becomes  hereditary.  Comparatively  few 
young  birds  in  any  one  year  have  been  injured  by  man  in  England,  yet  almost 
all,  even  nestlings,  are  afraid  of  him ;  many  individuals,  however,  both  at  *he 
Galapagos  and  at  the  Falklands,  have  been  pursued  and  injured  by  man,  but 
yet  have  not  learned  a  salutary  dread  of  him." 

1328.  Numerous  species  of  birds  may  be  regarded  as  the  favourites  of  nature 
on  account  of  the  gracefulness  given  to  their  shape,  and  the  richly-coloured 
plumage  with  which  they  are  adorned,  as  evidenced  in  the  gaudy  liveries  of 
many  of  the  parrot  tribe,  and  the  forms  and  hues  of  the  birds  of  paradise.  But 
they  are  especially  interesting  to  man  for  the  faculty  of  song  with  which  they 
are  endowed ;  in  some,  "  most  musical,  most  melancholy,"  in  others,  sprightly 
and  animating,  inspiriting  the  sons  of  toil  under  the  burdens  peculiar  to 
their  station.  It  deserves  to  be  remarked,  as  an  instance  of  compensation  and 
adjustment,  that  whilst  the  birds  of  the  temperate  zone  are  far  inferior  to  those 
of  tropical  climes  in  point  of  beauty,  they  have  far  more  melodious  notes  in  con- 
nection with  their  less  attractive  appearance. 

1329  From  the  powerful  means  of  locomotion  possessed  by  several  of  the  bird 
tribe,  and  their  great  specific  levity,  air  being  admitted  to  the  whole  organi- 
sation as  water  to  a  sponge,  it  might  DC  inferred,  that  the  entire  atmosphere 
was  intended  to  be  their  domain,  so  that  no  species  would  be  limited  to  a 
particular  region.  The  common  crow  flies  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  miles  an 
hour ;  the  rapidity  of  the  eider-duck,  Anas  mollissima,  is  equal  to  ninety  miles  an 
hour ;  while  the  swifts  and  hawks  travel  at  the  astonishing  speed  of  a  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  in  the  same  time.  It  is  true  that  some  species  have  a  very  exten- 
sive range,  as  the  nightingale,  the  common  wild  goose,  and  several  of  the 
vulture  tribe.  The  same  kind  of  osprey  or  fishing-eagle  that  wanders  along  the 
Scottish  shores  appears  upon  those  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  of  New  Holland. 
The  lammergeyer  haunts  the  heights  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  mountains  of 
Abyssinia,  and  the  Mongolian  steppes;  and  the  penguin  falcon  occurs  in 
Greenland,  Europe,  America,  and  Australia.  In  general,  however,  like  plants 
and  terrestrial  quadrupeds,  the  birds  are  subject-to  geographical  laws,  definite 
limits  circumscribing  particular  groups.  The  common  grouse  of  our  own 
country  affords  a  striking  exemplification  of  this  arrangement,  as  it  is  nowhere 
met  with  out  of  Great  Britain ;  and  other  examples  occur  of  a  very  scanty  area 
containing  a  species  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  region.  The  celebrated  birds 
of  paradise  are  exclusively  confined  to  a  small  part  of  the  torrid  zone,  embracing 
New  Guinea  and  the  contiguous  islands ;  and  the  beautiful  Lories  are  inhabi- 
tants of  the  same  districts,  being  quite  unknown  to  the  New  World.  Parroquets 
are  chiefly  occupants  of  a  zonr  extending  a  few  degrees  beyond  each  trop  c,  but 
the  American  group  is  quite  distinct  from  the  African,  and  neither  of  these 
have  one  in  common  with  the  parrots  of  India,  The  great  eagle  is  limited  to 
the  highest  summits  of  the  Alps;  and  the  condor,  which  soars  above  the  peak 
of  the  tGftiest  of  the  Andes,  never  quits  that  chain.  Humming-birds  are 


THE   SEASON   WHY.  341 


'  There  is  a  path  which  no  fowl  knoweth,  and  which  the  vulture's  eye  hafli  not 
seen."— JOB  xvui. 


entirely  limited  to  the  western  hemisphere,  where  a  particular  species  is  some- 
times  bounded  by  the  range  of  an  island,  while  others  are  more  extensively 
spread,  the  Trochilus  Jlammifrons,  common  to  Lima,  being  observed  by  Captain 
King  upon  the  coast  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  in  the  depth  of  winter,  sucking 
the  flowers  of  a  large  fuschia,  then  in  bloom  in  the  midst  of  a  shower  of  snow. 
Among  the  birds  incapable  of  flight,  which  rival  the  quadrupeds  in  their  size, 
the  intertropical  countries  of  the  globe  have  their  distinct  species,  presenting 
similar  general  features  of  organisation,  as  the  ostrich  of  Africa  and  Arabia, 
the  cassowary  of  Java  and  Australia,  and  the  touyou  of  Brazil.  In  the  arctic 
regions,  we  meet  with  species  peculiar  to  them,  the  Strix  laeponicus  or  Lapland 
owl,  and  the  eider-duck,  an  inhabitant  of  the  shores,  from  whose  nests  the 
eider-down  is  obtained.  Several  families  of  maritime  birds  are  likewise  limited 
to  particular  oceanic  localities.  Approaching  the  fortieth  parallel  of  latitude, 
the  albatross  is  seen  flitting  along  the  surface  of  the  waves,  and  soon  afterwards 
the  frigate  and  other  tropical  birds  appear,  which  never  wander  far  beyond  the 
torrid  zone.  It  thus  appears,  that,  notwithstanding  the  great  locomotive 
powers  of  birds,  particular  groups  have  had  certain  regions  assigned  to  them 
as  their  sphere  of  existence,  which  they  are  adapted  to  occupy,  and  to  which 
they  adhere  in  the  main,  though  it  is  easy  to  conceive  of  natural  causes 
occasionally  constraining  to  a  migration  into  new  and  even  distant  territories. 
Captain  Smyth  informed  Mr.  Lyell,  that  when  engaged  in  his  survey  of  the 
Mediterranean,  he  encountered  a  gale  in  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  at  the  distance  of 
between  twenty  and  thirty  leagues  from  the  coast  of  France,  which  bore  along 
many  land-birds  of  various  species,  some  of  which  alighted  on  the  ship,  while 
others  were  thrown  with  violence  against  the  sails.  In  this  manner,  many  an 
islet  in  the  deep,  after  ages  of  solitude  and  silence,  uninterrupted  except  by  the 
wave's  wild  dash,  and  the  wind's  fierce  howl,  may  have  received  the  song  of 
birds,  forced  by  the  tempest  from  their  home,  and  compelled  to  seek  a  new  one 
under  its  direction. 

1330.  There  is  no  feature  more  remarkable  in  the  economy  of  birds  than  the 
periodical  migrations,  so  systematically  conducted,  in  which  five-sixths  of  the 
whole  feathered  population  engage.  In  the  case  of  North  America,  according  to 
an  estimate  by  Dr.  Richardson,  the  passenger-pigeons  form  themselves  into  vast 
flocks  for  the  journey,  one  of  which  has  been  calculated  to  include  2,230,000,000 
individuals.  We  are  familiar  with  the  cuckoo  as  our  visitor  in  spring,  and  with 
the  house-swallow  as  our  guest  through  the  summer,  the  latter  usually  depart- 
ing in  October  to  the  warmer  regions  of  the  south,  wintering  in  Africa,  return- 
ing again  when  a  more  genial  season  revives  its  insect  food.  By  cutting  off  two 
claws  from  the  feet  of  a  certain  number  of  swallows,  Dr.  Jenner  ascertained  the 
fact  of  the  same  individuals  re-appearing  in  their  old  haunts  in  the  following 
year,  and  one  was  met  with  even  after  the  lapse  of  seven  years.  The  arctic  birds 
migrate  farther  south,  when  the  seas,  lakes,  and  rivers  become  covered  with 
unbroken  sheets  of  ice ;  the  swans,  geese,  ducks,  divers,  and  coots  flying  off  in 
regular  phalanxes  to  regions  where  a  less  rigorous  winter  allows  of  access  to  the 
means  of  life.  Hence,  soon  after,  we  lose  the  swallows,  we  gain  the  snipes  and 
other  waders,  which  have  fled  from  the  hard  frozen  north  to  our  partially 
frozen  morasses,  where  their  ordinary  nutriment  may  still  be  obtained.  The 
equinoctial  zone,  where  the  seasonal  change  is  that  of  humidity  and  drought 
furnishes  an  example  of  the  same  phenomenon.  As  soon  as  the  Orinoco  is 
swollen  by  the  rains,  overflows  its  banks,  and  inundates  the  country  on  eithe* 


842  THE   BEA80N   WHY. 


'The  Lord  is  my  light  and  my  salvation ;  whom  shall  I  fear  P  the  Lord  is  the 
strength  of  my  life ;  of  whom  shall  I  be  afraid  ?"— PSALM  xxvn. 


side,  an  innumerable  quantity  of  aquatics  leave  its  course  for  the  West  Iiidrv 
islands  on  the  north,  and  the  valley  of  the  Amazton  on  the  south,  the  increased 
depth  of  the  river,  and  the  flooded  state  of  the  shores,  depriving  thc»in  of  tho 
usual  supply  of  fish  and  insects.  Upon  the  stream  decreasing,  and  retiring 
within  its  bed,  the  birds  return. 

1331.  A  comparison  between  the  quadrupeds  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds  i>  i  i 
every  point  strikingly  in  favour  of  the  former.    Not  only  has  the  western 
continent  no  animals  of  such  giant  bulk  as  those  of  the  eastern,  but  no 
examples  of  such  high  organisation,  such  power  and  courage,  as  the  African  lion 
and  the  Asiatic  tiger  display.    Buffon's  remark  must  indeed  be  considerably 
modified,  respecting  the  cowardice  of  the  American  feline  race;  for  the  jaguar 
of  the  woods  about  the  Amazon,  when  attacked  by  man,  will  not  hesitate  to 
accept  his  challenge,  will  even  become  the  assailant,  nor  shrink   from   an 
encounter  against  the  greatest  odds.    The  following  passages  from  the  writings 
of  Humboldt  show  that  this  transatlantic  animal  is  not  to  be  despised : — 

"  The  night  was  gloomy ;  the  Devil's  Wall  and  its  denticulated  rocks  appeared 
from  time  to  time  at  a  distance,  illuminated  by  the  burning  of  the  savannahs, 
or  wrapped  in  ruddy  smoke.  At  the  spot  where  the  bushes  were  the  thickest, 
our  horses  were  frightened  by  the  yell  of  an  animal  that  seemed  to  follow  us 
closely.  It  was  a  large  jaguar,  that  had  roamed  for  three  years  among  these 
mountains.  He  had  constantly  escaped  the  pursuit  of  the  boldest  hunters,  and 
had  carried  off  horses  and  mules  from  the  midst  of  enclosures ;  but,  having  no 
want  of  food,  had  not  yet  attacked  men.  The  negro  who  conducted  us  uttered 
wild  cries.  He  thought  he  should  frighten  the  jaguar ;  but  these  means  were  of 
course  without  effect.  The  jaguar,  like  the  wolf  of  Europe,  follows  travellers 
even  when  he  will  not  attack  them:  the  wolf  in  the  open  fields  and  in 
unsheltered  places,  the  jaguar  skirting  the  road,  and  appearing  only  at  intervals 
between  the  bushes." 

The  same  illustrious  observer  also  remarks,— 

"  Near  the  Joval,  nature  assumes  an  awful  and  savage  aspect  "We  there  saw 
the  largest  jaguar  we  had  ever  met  with.  The  natives  themselves  were 
astonished  at  its  prodigious  length,  which  surpassed  that  of  all  the  tigers  of 
India  I  had  seen  in  the  collections  of  Europe." 

Still  these  were  extraordinary  specimens  of  the  race,  and  leave  the  fact 
undoubted,  that  the  most  formidable  of  the  western  Ferae  has  no  pretensions  to 
an  equality  with  his  congener,  the  tyrant  of  the  jungles  of  Bengal. 

1332.  In  vain  also  we  look  among  the  tribes  of  America  for  a  rival  in  outward 
appearance  to  the  giraffe,  so  remarkable  for  its  height,  its  swan-like  neck,  gentle 
habits,  and  soft  expressive  eye;  while  of  the  animals  most  serviceable  to  mankind 
—the  horse,  the  ox,  the  ass,  the  goat,  and  the  hog— not  a  living  example  of  either 
was  known  there  before  its  occupancy  by  the  Europeans.  But,  however  inferior 
the  animal  race  of  the  New  may  be  as  compared  to  those  of  the  Old  world,  the 
balance  between  the  two  appears  to  have  been  pretty  equal  in  remote  ages ; 
geological  discovery  has  disproved  the  assertion  of  Buffon,  that  the  creative 
force  in  America  in  relation  to  quadrupeds  never  possessed  great  vigour,  and 
has  established  the  fact,  that  it  is  only  the  more  recent  specimens  of  its  energy 
that  are  upon  an  inferior  scale.    The  relics  of  the  un wieldly  magatherium,  of 
the  gigantic  sloth,  and  armadillo-like  animals,  discovered  in  great  abundance 
imbedded  in  its  soil,  prove  that  at  a  former  period  it  swarmed  with  monsters  of 
equal  bulk  with  those  that  now  roam  in  the  midst  of  Africa  arid  Asia.    The 
estuary  deposit  that  forms  the  plains  westward  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  covers  the 
gigantic  rocks  of  the  Bando  Oriental,  appears  to  be  the  grave  of  extinct  gigantic 


THE  REASON  WHY.  343 


*  But  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  lie  there :  and  their  houses  shall  be  full 

of  doleful  creatures ;  and  owls  shall  dwell  there,  and  satyrs  shall  dance 

there." — ISAIAH  xiy. 

1333.  There  are  various  animals  which  are  very  widely  dispersed,  enduring 
the  extremes  o.'  tropical  heat  and  of  polar  cold,  which  are  either  in  a  wild 
condition  or  in  a  state  of  domestication.  Wild  races,  considered  to  be  varieties 
of  the  domestic  dog,  occur  in  India,  Sumatra,  Australia,  Beloochistan,  Natolia, 
Nubia,  various  parts  of  Africa,  and  both  the  Americas;  while  in  subjection  to 
man,  the  dog  is  his  faithful  companion,  and  has  followed  his  steps  into  every 
diversity  of  climate  and  of  situation  to  which  he  has  wandered.  The  north 
temperate  zone  of  the  Old  Continent  appears  to  be  the  native  region  of  the  ox, 
which  passes  in  Lapland  within  the  arctic  circle,  and  has  been  spread  over  South 
America  since  its  first  introduction  by  the  Spaniards.  The  horse,  originally  an 
inhabitant  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  Old  World,  has  shared  in  a  similar 
dispersion,  and  now  exists  in  the  high  latitude  of  Iceland,  in  the  desolate  regions 
of  Patagonia,  and  roams  wild  in  immense  herds  over  the  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco, 
leading  a  painful  and  restless  life  in  the  burning  climate  of  the  tropics. 
Humboldt  draws  a  striking  picture  of  the  sufferings  of  these  gifts  of  the  Old 
World  to  the  New,  returned  to  a  savage  state  in  their  western  location. 

"  In  the  rainy  season,  the  horses  that  wander  in  the  savannah,  and  have  not 
time  to  reach  the  rising  grounds  of  the  Llanos,  perish  by  hundreds  amidst  the 
overflowings  of  the  rivers.  The  mares  are  seen,  followed  by  their  colts. 
swimming,  during  a  part  of  the  day,  to  feed  upon  grass,  the  tops  of  which  alone 
wave  above  the  waters.  In  this  state  they  are  pursued  by  the  crocodiles ;  and 
it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  find  the  pnnts  of  the  teeth  of  these  carnivorous 
reptiles  on  their  thighs.  Pressed  alternately  by  excess  of  drought  and  of  humi- 
dity, they  sometimes  seek  a  pool,  in  the  midst  of  a  bare  and  dusty  soil,  to  quench 
their  thirst;  and  at  other  times  flee  from  water  and  the  overflowing  rivers,  as 
menaced  by  an  enemy  that  encounters  them  in  every  direction.  Harassed  during 
the  day  by  gad-flies  and  mosquitoes,  the  horses,  mules,  and  cows  find  themselves 
attacked  at  night  by  enormous  bats,  that  fasten  on  their  backs,  and  cause 
wounds  which  become  dangerous,  because  they  are  filled  with  acaridse  and  other 
hurtful  insects.  In  the  time  of  great  drought,  the  mules  gnaw  even  the  fiorny 
melocactus  (melon-thistle),  in  order  to  drink  its  cooling  juice,  and  draw  it  forth 
as  from  a  vegetable  fountain.  During  the  great  inundations,  these  same  animals 
lead  an  amphibious  life,  surrounded  by  crocodiles  water-serpents,  and  manatees. 
Yet,  such  are  the  immutable  laws  of  nature,  their  races  are  preserved  in  the 
struggle  with  the  elements,  and  amid  so  many  sufferings  and  dangers.  When 
the  waters  retire,  and  the  rivers  return  into  their  beds,  the  Savannah  is  spread 
over  with  a  fine  odoriferous  grass ;  ai.d  the  animals  of  old  Europe  and  Upper 
Asia  seem  to  enjoy,  as  in  their  native  climates  the  renewed  vegetation  of 
spring." 

1334.  The  first  colonists  of  La  Plata  landed  with  seventy-two  horses,  in  the 
year  1535,  when,  owing  to  a  temporary  desertion  of  the  colony,  the  animals  ran 
wild ;  and  in  1580,  only  forty-five  years  afterwards,  it  had  reached  the  Straits  of 
Magellan.  The  ass  has  a  more  restricted  range  than  the  horse,  not  being 
capable  of  enduring  so  great  a  degree  of  cold,  though  usually  far  from  being 
considered  a  delicate  animal.  To  the  warmer  parts  of  the  temperate  zone, 
between  the  20th  and  the  40th  parallels  of  latitude,  the  ass  seems  best  adapted, 
not  propagating  much  beyond  the  60th,  and  only  occurring  in  a  state  of  degene- 
ration beyond  the  52nd.  The  sheep  and  goat  tribe  are  widely  spread,  equa'ly 
supporting  the  extremes  of  temperature.  According  to  Zimmerman,  the  Art/act 
or  Mouflon,  the  original  race  of  sheep,  still  exists  on  all  the  great  mountains  of  the 
two  continents ;  and  the  Capricorn  and  Ibex,  the  ancestors  of  the  common  goat 
inhabit  the  high  European  elevations.  From  the  64th  degree  of  north  latitude 
the  hog  is  met  with  all  over  the  old  continent,  ana  also  in  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  peopled  by  the  Malay  race;  and  since  its  introduction  into  the 


S44  THE   SEASON  WHY. 


'  His  going  forth  is  from  the  end  of  the  heaven,  and  his  circuit  unto  the  ends  of 
it ;  and  there  is  nothing  hid  from  the  heat  thereof."— PSALM  xix. 


New  World,  it  has  diffused  itself  over  it,  from  the  50th  parallel  north  as  far  as 
Patagonia.  Originally  the  cat  was  not  known  in  America,  nor  in  any  part  of 
Oceanica ;  but  it  has  now  spread  into  almost  every  country  of  the  globe.  Anxmg 
animals  entirely  wild,  the  most  extensively  diffused,  are  the  fox,  hare,  squirrel, 
and  ermine ;  but  the  species  are  different  in  every  region  of  the  world  ;  nor  is 
there  perhaps  one  example  to  be  found  of  a  species  perfectly  identical  naturally 
existing  in  distant  localities  of  the  earth. 

Respecting  the  internal  constitution  and  heut  of  the  earth,  differences  of 
opinion,  and  some  very  wild  speculation  have  existed.  We  find  in  Humboldt's 
"  Cosmos  "  the  following  remarks : — 

1335.  "It  has  been  computed  at  what  depths  liquid  and  even  gaseous 
substances,  from  the  pressure  of  their  own  superimposed  strata,  would  attain 
a  density  exceeding  that  of  platinum,  or  of  iridium  ;  and  in  order  to  bring  the 
actual  degree  of  ellipticity,  which  was  known  within  very  narrow  limits,  into 
harmony  with  the  hypothesis  of  the  infinite  compressibility  of  matter,  Leslie 
conceived  the  interior  of  the  Earth  to  be  a  hollow  sphere,  filled  with  "an 
imponderable  fluid  of  enormous  expansive  force."  Such  rash  and  arbitrary 
conjectures  have  given  rise,  in  wholly  unscientific  circles,  to  still  more  fantastic 
notions.  The  hollow  sphere  has  been  peopled  with  plants  and  animals,  on 
which  two  small  subterranean  revolving  planets,  Pluto  and  Proserpine,  were 
supposed  to  shed  a  mild  light.  A  constantly  uniform  temperature  is  supposed 
to  prevail  in  these  inner  regions,  and  the  air  being  rendered  self-luminous  by 
compression,  might  well  render  the  planets  of  this  lower  world  unnecessary. 
Near  the  north  pole,  in  82  deg.  of  latitude,  an  enormous  opening  is  imagined, 
from  which  the  polar  light  visible  in  Aurora  streams  forth,  and  by  which  a 
descent  into  the  hollow  sphere  may  be  made.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  and  myself 
were  repeatedly  and  putlicly  invited  by  Captain  Symmes  to  undertake  this 
subterranean  expedition ;  so  powerful  is  the  morbid  inclination  of  men  to  fill 
unseen  spaces  with  shapes  of  wonder,  regardless  of  the  counter-evidence  of 
well-established  facts,  or  universally  recognised  natural  laws.  Even  the 
celebrated  Halley,  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  hollowed  out  the  earth  in  his 
magnetic  speculations ;  a  freely  rotating  subterranean  nucleus  was  supposed  to 
occasion,  by  its  varying  positions,  the  diurnal  and  annual  changes  of  the 
magnetic  declination.  Ic  has  been  attempted  in  our  own  day,  in  tedious 
earnest,  to  invest  with  a  scientific  garb  that  which,  in  the  pages  of  the 
ingenious  Holberg,  was  an  amusing  fiction." 

The  following  are  among  the  speculations  which  Hurnboldt  thus  severely  but 
justly  condemns  :— 

"  The  increase  of  temperature  observed  is  about  1  do g.  Fahr.  for  every  fifteen 
yards  of  descent.  In  all  probability,  however,  the  increase  will  be  found  to  be 
in  a  geometrical  progression  as  investigation  is  extended;  in  which  case  the 
present  crust  will  be  found  to  be  much  thinner  than  we  have  calculated  it  to 
be.  And  should  this  be  found  to  be  correct,  the  igneous  theory  will  become  a 
subject  of  much  more  importance,  in  a  geological  point  of  view,  than  we  are  at 
present  disposed  to  consider  it.  Taking,  then,  as  correct,  the  present  observed 
rate  of  increase,  the  temperature  would  be  as  follows : 

Water  will  boil  at  the  depth  of  2,430  yards. 

Lead  melts  at  the  depth  of  8,400  yards.  ' 

There  is  red  heat  at  the  depth  of  7  miles. 

Gold  melts  at  21  miles. 

Cast  iron  at  74  miles. 

Soft  iron  at  97  miles. 

And  at  the  depth  of  100  miles  there  is  a  temperature  equal  to  the  greatest 
artificial  heat  yet  observed ;  a  temperature  capable  of  fusing  platina,  porcelain, 
and  indeed  every  refractory  substance  we  are  acquainted  with.  These  tempera- 
tures are  calculated  from  Guyton  Morveau's  corrected  scale  of  Wedgwood's 
pyrometer ;  and  if  we  adopt  them,  we  find  that  the  earth  is  fluid  at  the  depth 


THE   EEASON   WHY.  345 


He  hath  filled  the  hungry  with  good  things ;  and  the  rich  he  hath  sent  empty 
away."— LUKE  i. 


of  100  miles  from  the  surface,  and  that  even  in  its  present  state  very  little 
more  than  the  soil  on  which  we  tread  is  fit  for  the  habitation  of  organised 
beings." 

The  above  is  to  be  found  in  Mr.  Timbs's  "  Things  not  Generally  Known,"  a 
little  book  which  professes  to  set  people  right  upon  points  on  which  they  are  in 
error! 

Upon  this  subject  Mr.  Hunt,  in  his  "  Poetry  of  Science,"  says  :— 

133(5.  "  A  question  of  great  interest,  in  a  scientific  point  of  view,  is  the  tempe- 
rature of  the  centre  of  the  earth.  We  are,  of  course,  without  the  means  of  solving 
this  problem ;  but  we  advance  a  little  way  onwards  in  the  inquiry  by  a  careful 
examination  of  subterranean  temperature  at  such  depths  as  the  enterprise  of 
man  enables  us  to  reach.  These  researches  show  us,  that  where  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  climate  is  50  deg.,  the  temperature  of  trie  rock  at  59  fathoms 
from  the  surface  is  60  deg.;  at  132  fathoms  it  is  70  deg;  at  239  fathoms  it  is  8<> 
deg. ;  being  an  increase  of  10  deg.  at  59  fathoms  deep,  or  1  deg.  in  35.4  feet ;  of 
10  deg.  more  at  73  fathoms  deeper,  or  1  deg.  in  43.8  feet ;  and  of  10  deg.  more  at 
1 1*  fathoms  still  deeper,  or  1  deg.  in  64.2  feet. 

Although  this  would  indicate  an  increase  to  a  certain  depth  of  about  one 
degree  in  every  fifty  feet,  yet  it  would  appear  that  the  rate  of  increase  diminishes 
•w  ith  the  depth.  It  appears  therefore  probable,  that  the  heat  of  the  earth,  so  far 
as  man  can  examine  it,  is  due  to  the  absorption  of  the  solar  rays  by  the  surface. 
The  evidences  of  intense  igneous  action  at  a  great  depth  cannot  be  denied,  but 
the  doctrine  of  a  cooling  mass,  and  of  the  existence  of  an  incandescent  mass,  at  the 
earth's  centre,  remains  but  one  of  those  guesses  which  active  minds  delight  in." 

Upon  the  subject  of  hunger  and  tJiirst,  by  which  living  creatures  are  prompted 
to  feast  upon  the  bounties  of  nature,  Sir  Charles  Bell  says,  in  "Appendix  to 
Paley's  Natural  Theology :" — 

1337.  "Hunger  is  defined  to  be  a  peculiar  sensation  experienced  in  the  stcmach 
from  a  deficiency  of  food.    Such  a  definition  does  not  greatly  differ  from  the 
notions  of  those  who  referred  the  sense  of  hunger  to  the  mechanical  action  ol 
the  surfaces  of  the  stomach  upon  each  other,  or  to  a  threatening  of  chemical 
action  of  the  gastric  juice  on  the  stomach  itself.    But  an  empty  stomach  does 
i;ot  cause  hunger.    On  the  contrary,  the  time  when  the  meal  has  passed  the 
stomach  is  the  best  suited  for  exercise,  and  when  there  is  the  greatest  alacrity 
f  f  spirits     The  beast  of  prey  feeds  at  long  intervals ;  the  snake  and  other  cold- 
blooded animals  take  food  after  intervals  of  days  or  weeks.  A  horse,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  always  feeding.    His  stomach,  at  most,  contains  about  four  gallons,  yet 
throw  before  him  a  truss  of  tares  or  lucerne,  and  he  will  eat  continually.    The 
emptying  of  the  stomach  cannot,  therefore,  be  the  cause  of  hunger. 

"  The  natural  appetite  is  a  sensation  related  to  the  general  condition  of  the 
system,  and  not  simply  referable  to  the  state  of  the  stomach;  neither  to  its 
action,  nor  its  emptiness,  nor  the  acidity  of  its  contents ;  nor  in  a  starved 
creature  will  a  full  stomach  satisfy  the  desire  of  food.  Under  the  same  impulse 
which  makes  us  swallow,  the  ruminating  animal  draws  the  morsel  from  its  own 
stomach. 

1338.  "  Hunger  is  well  illustrated  by  thirst.  Suppose  we  take  the  definition  of 
thirst— that  it  is  a  sense  of  dryness  and  constriction  in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth 
and  fauces ;  the  moistening  of  these  parts  will  not  allay  thirst  after  much  fatigue 
or  d  uring  fever.    In  making  a  long  speech,  if  a  man's  mouth  is  parched,  and  t  ho 
dryness  is  merely  from  speaking,  it  will  be  relieved  by  moistening,  but  if  it 
comes  from  the  feverish  anxiety  and  excitement  attending  a  public  exhibition, 
his  thirst  will  not  be  so  removed.  The  question,  as  it  regards  thirst,  was  brought 
to  a  demonstration  by  the  following  circumstance.    A  man  having  a  wound  low 
down  in  his  throat,  was  tortured  with  thirst :  but  no  quantity  of  fluid  passing 
through  his  mouth  and  gullet,  and  escaping  by  the  wound,  was  found  in  airy 
degree  to  quench  his  thirst. 

"  Thirst,  then,  like  hunger,  has  relation  to  the  general  condition  of  the  animal 
•ystem— to  the  necessity  for  fluid  in  tb e  circulation.  For  this  reason,  a  man  dying 

15* 


346  THE    BEASON    WHY. 


1  Let  us  hear  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter ;  Fear  God,  and  keep  his 
commandments :  for  this  is  the  whole  duty  of  man." — ECCLESIASTES  xii. 


from  loss  of  blood  suffers  under  intolerable  thirst.  In  both  thirst  and  liuncer, 
the  supply  is  obtained  through  the  gratification  of  an  appetite;  and  as  to  the:-e 
appetites,  it  will  be  acknowledged  that  the  pleasures  resulting  from  thi-in  far 
*xeved  the  pains.  They  gently  solicit  for  the  wants  of  the  body ;  they  are  tho 
perpetual  motive  and  spring  to  action." 

Our  task  draws  near  to  a  conclusion ;  and  we  hope  that  those 
who  have  followed  our  teachings  will  thirst  after  further  know- 
ledge ;  that  they  will  henceforward  regard  the  great  Book  of 
Nature  as  the  work  of  an  Almighty  Hand,  and  endeavour  to  find, 
for  everything  that  Nature  does,  the  Reason  Why. 

A  high  perception  of  the  wisdom  of  the  Divine  Being,  must 
necessarily  be  the  result  of  an  intelligent  contemplation  of  the 
Divine  works.  To  the  ignorant,  the  name  of  God  is  an  unmeaning 
word ;  it  may  inspire  fear,  but  it  does  not  develope  love.  To  the 
dark  mind  of  the  untaught  man,  God  is  no  more  than  one  of  those 
mysterious  existences  that  awe  the  superstitious,  and  deter  the 
wicked.  There  is  no  grafting  of  the  soul  of  the  man  upon  the 
eternal  love.  But  knowledge  brings  man  into  communion  with  that 
Almighty  wisdom  which  is  the  fountain  of  all  truth  and  happiness. 
To  the  enlightened  man,  God  is  the  sun  of  all  goodness,  around 
whom  the  attributes  of  Power,  Wisdom,  and  Love,  radiate  and  fill 
the  universe.  As  man's  physical  eye  cannot  withstand  the  light  of 
the  sun,  neither  can  man's  spiritual  eye  see  the  whole  glory  of  God. 
But  as  we  can  rejoice  in  the  sunshine,  and  interpret  the  mission  of 
the  sunbeam,  so  can  we  find  happiness  in  the  Divine  presence,  and 
gather  wisdom  by  the  contemplation  of  the  Creator's  works. 

Nature  is  a  great  teacher.  What  a  lesson  may  be  gathered  from 
the  germination  of  a  seed ;  how  uniformly  the  germs  obey  their 
destiny.  However  carelessly  a  seed  may  be  set  in  the  ground,  the 
germ  which  forms  the  root,  and  that  which  is  the  architect  of  the 
stem,  will  seek  their  way — the  one  to  light,  the  other  to  darkness — 
to  fulfil  their  duty.  The  obstruction  of  granite  rocks,  cannot  force 
the  rootlet  upward,  nor  drive  the  leaflet  down.  They  may  kill  the 
germs  by  exhausting  their  vital  powers  in  an  endeavour  to  find  the 
proper  elements ;  but  no  obstruction  can  make  a  single  blade  of 
grass  do  aught  but  strive  to  fulfil  the  end  for  which  it  was  created. 
Would  that  man  were  equally  true  to  the  purpose  of  his  existence, 
and  suffered  neither  the  rocks  of  selfishness,  nor  the  false  light  of 
temptation,  to  force  or  allure  him  from  duty  to  his  God. 
THE  E\D. 


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A  CAREFUL  COLLECTION  OF 

Some  &fron-$mtb&  of  ^Lessons  for  Swings  fojiitlj,  %n0(j  faera 
Jiuofcojt,  are  ^mperfettlg  ^nberstooir. 

A  BOOK  OF  CONDENSED  SCIENTIFIC  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  THE  MILLION. 


BY  THE  AUTHOR  OF  "I]VQ,UIRE  WITHIN." 

This  is  a  goodly  sized  volume  of  356  pages,  comprising  a  sort  of  Encyclo- 
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that  it  treats  on  every  imaginable  subject  pertaining  to  Causes  and  Effects, 
and  must  necessarily  be  invaluable  to  all  persons  who  desire  KNOWLEDGE, 
and  whose  means  and  position  in  life  have  prevented  them  from  acquiring  it 
by  a  regular  and  tedious  course  of  Study. 

We  hesitate  not  to  say,  that  any  one  who  closely  reads  this  volume  will  ob- 
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refined  person  with  spending  but  very  little  money,  tune  or  trouble. 

No  pains  have  been  spared  by  the  Author  to  make  this  a  popular  book,  in 
fact  a  book  for  the  million,  and  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  its  vast  usefulness 
when  we  inform  the  reader  that  THE  REASON  WHY  has  an 

Index  of  Contents  requiring  Forty  Columns  of  Fine  Type. 

No  person  who  desires  to  figure  in  refined  and  intelligent  circles  should  delay  pur- 
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be  posted  up  on  all  scientific  subjects. 

What  Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates  is  in  regard  to  historical  events,  this  wonderful 
book  is  in  respect  to  scientific  facts.  The  plan  of  the  book  and  its  execution,  leave 
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"  reason  whv-" 

The  man  who  goes  out  into  the  world,  or  attempts  to  attend  properly  to  his 
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This  volume  supplies  the 

Ready  Coin  of  Conversation, 

In  the  shape  of  SCIENCE  FOR  THE  MILLION,  and  makes  even  the  neglected  in 
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ordinary  range  of  the  social  circle.  It  imparts 

Practical  Information  on  the  Subject  of  Practical  Facts. 

It  may  be  denominated,  Science  made  easy,  or  a  world  of  useful  every-day  learn- 
ing condensed  into  a  volume  for  your  pocket! 


THE   IB,  IE  .A.  S  O  INT 

Is  a  handsome  12mo.  volume  of  356  pages,  printed  on  fine  paper,  bound  in  cloth,  gilt, 
and  embellished  with  a  large  number  of  Wood  Cuts,  illustrating  the  various  subjects 
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No.  18  ANN  STREET,  NEW  YOKE. 


SAM   SLICK'S  NEW  WORK. 

"  Buy  it,  and  if  you  don't  laugh,  then  there  is  no  laugh  in  you."— OHIO  STATESMAN. 
JUST  PUBLISHED, 

NATURE  AND  HUMAN  NATURE 

A  Sequel  to  "  Wise  Saws ;  or,  Sam  Slick  in  Search  of  a  Wife," 

BY  JUDGE   II A  I,  III UR TON, 

r  of  "£atn  £ltcft,  tf»e  CTIocftmafttr,"  "©ft  3ufco;*,"  &c.,  *r. 
NEATLY  BOUND  IN  MUSLIN,  75  CENTS  ;  IN  PAPER,  50  CENTS. 

CONTENTS. 


A  Surprise. 
Clippers  and  Steamers. 
Unlocking  a  "Woman's  Heart. 
A  Critter  with  a  Thousand  Vir- 

tues and  but  One  Vice. 
A  New  Way  to  Learn  Gaelic. 
The  Wounds  of  the  Heart- 
Fiddling  and  Dancing,  and  Serv- 

ing the  Devil. 
Stitching  a  Button-  Hole. 
The  Plural  of  Moore. 
A  Day  on  the  Lakes. 
The  Betrothal. 


Female  Colleges. 

Gipseying. 

The  World  before  the  Flood. 

Lost  at  Sea. 

Holding  up  the  Mirror. 

The  Bundle  of  Sticks. 

Town  and  Country. 

The  Honeymoon. 

A  Dish  of  Clams. 

The  Devil's  Hole ;  or,  Fi»h  and 

Flesh. 

The  Cucumber  Lake. 
The  Recall. 


A  Foggy  Night. 

NOTICES  OF  THE  PRESS. 

"The  writings  of  Judge  Hali  burton  hare  long  been  regarded  as  the  production 
of  the  finest  humorist  that  has  ever  attempted  the  delineation  of  Yankee  charac- 
ter, and  the  entertaining  work  before  us  shows  that  he  has  lost  none  of  his  original 
wit  and  humor.  It  will  be  difficult  to  find  a  volume  so  full  of  fun  and  good  sense 
as  this,  which  chronicles  the  last  experiences  of  Sam  Slick."—  Commercial  Advertiser. 

';  Since  Sum  Slick's  first  work  he  has  written  nothing  go  fresh,  racy,  and  genii* 
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now  tomatoes."  —  Buffalo  Express. 

Published  by  DICK  &  FITZGERALD,  18  Ann  St,  N.  Y 

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ess is  a  lady  who  understands  how  cooking  ought  to  be  rtone,  and  has  here  given  her 
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Containing  Practical  Advice  on  Improving  the  Complexion,  the  Hair,  the  Hands. 
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degree  of  perfection  of  which  they  are  susceptible.  And  also  upwards  of  One  Hun- 
dred Recipes  for  various  Coometics.  Oils,  Pomades,  etc.,  etc.,  being  the  rr.sult  of  a 
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sketches  of  the  insipidity  and  heartlessness  of  fashionable  life,  whose  unhappy  devo- 
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ESTELLE  GRANT  ;   OR,  THE  LOST  WIFE. 

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NA  MOTU ;  OR,  REEF  ROVINGS  IN  THE  SOUTH  SEAS. 

A  Narrative  of  Adventures  in  the  Hawaiian,  Georgian,  and  Society  Islands,  with 

original  illustrations. 
BY    EDWARD    T.    PERKINS 

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Na  Motu  is  the  quaint  title  of  a  handsome  volume  of  voyage  and  adventure  in  the 
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ral years  before  the  mast,  and  on  the  salt  water  in  other  capacities,  and  his  style  is 
characterized  bv  a  straightforward,  honest  nonchalance  and  idiomatic  flavor,  redolent 
of  Old  Ocean  from  stem  to  btern.  His  daguerreotype  of  nautical  dialogues  is  only  a 
little  too  perfect,  occasionally,  for  good  taste ;  a  large  portion  of  his  experience  being 
gained  on  a  whaling  ship. — New  York  Chur.h  Jour. 

6 


SAM   SLICKS    YANKEE    COURTSI'IP. 


RECENTLY  PUBLISHED, 

WISE    SAWS; 


OR, 


SAM  SLICK  IN  SEARCH  OF  A  WIFE. 


By  the  Author  of  "Sam  Slick  In  England,"  "Wature  and  Hu- 
man Nature,"  "Sam  Slick's  Sayings  and  Doings,"  &c. 

In  One  Elegant  Volume,  neatly  bound  in  Muslin ; 

Price  75  Cts.—tn  Paper  50  Cts. 


3Ej:tvact  from  tfce  preface: 

*  *  *  *  « pun  has  no  Hmitg.  It  is  like  the  human  race  and  face  ;  there  is  a 
family  likeness  among  all  the  species,  but  they  all  differ.  New  combinations  pro- 
duce new  varieties.  A  man  who  has  an  eye  for  fun  sees  it  in  everything.  *  *  * 
There  is  a  work  called  '  The  Horse.'  and  another  •  The  Cow,'  and ;  The  Dog,'  and  so 
on  ;  why  should' nt  there  be  one  on  '  The  Galls  ?'  They  are  about  the  most  diffi- 
cult to  choose  and  to  manage  of  any  created  critter,  and  yet  there  aint  any  de- 
pendable directions  about  pickin'  and  choosiu'  of  them.  Is  it  any  wonder  then  so 
many  fellows  get  taken  in  when  they  go  for  to  swap  hearts  with  them  ?  Besides; 
any  one  can  find  a  gentleman  that  keeps  a  livery  stable  to  get  him  a  horse  to  order, 
but  who  can  say, '  Thin  is  the  Gall  for  your  money!'  " 


Introductory  Letter, 
Chat  with  the  President, 
Stealing  a  Speech, 
Everything  in  General,  and 

Nothing  in  Particular, 
The  black  Hawk  :  or  Life 

in  a  Ko  re -and- After, 
Old  Blowhard, 
The  Widow's  Son, 
The  Language  of  Mackeiel, 
The   Best-natured  Man    in 

the  World, 


CONTENTS. 

The  Bait-Box, 

The  Water-Glass;  or  a  Day- 

Dream  of  Life, 
Old  Sarsaparilla  Pills, 
Our  Colonies  and  Sailors, 
The  House  that  Hope  Built 
The  House  without  Hone, 
An  Old  Friend  with  a  New 

Face, 

That  in  a  Calm, 
The  Sable  Island  Ghost, 


The  Witch  of  Eslusoony, 
Jericho  beyond  Jordan, 
Three  Truths  for  One  Lie, 
Aunt  Thankful  &  herRooin 
A  Single  Idea. 
An   Excellent  Plan  of  Re- 
form, 

Goose  Van  Dam, 
A  Hot  Day, 
A  Pic-Nicat  LaHaire, 
A  Narrow  Escape. 


Published  by  DICK  &  FITZGERALD,  18  Ann  St.,  N.  Y. 

Jlndfor  sale  fty  dl  tht  principal  Book  tellers. 


THE    ARTIST'S    BRIDE  ; 

OR,     THE     PAWNBROKER'S     HEIR. 

A  Novel,  by  EMERSON  BENNET. 
12mo.  Cloth, — 420  pages,— Price  1  00. 

"  We  have  perused  this  work  with  some  attention,  and  do  not  hesitate 
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There  is  not  a  page  that  does  not  glow  with  thrilling  and  interesting 
incident,  and  will  well  repay  the  reader  for  the  time  occupied  in  pe- 
rusing it.  The  characters  are  most  admirably  drawn,  and  are  perfect- 
ly natural  throughout.  We  have  derived  so  much  gratification  from 
the  perusal  of  this  charming  novel,  that  we  are  anxious  to  make  our 
readers  share  it  with  us  :  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  recommend  it  to 
be  read  by  all  persons  who  are  fond  of  romantic  adventures.  Mr. 
Bennett  is  a  spirited  and  vigorous  writer,  and  his  works  deserve  to  be 
generally  read  ;  not  only  because  they  are  well  written,  but  that  they 
are,  in  most  part,  taken  from  events  connected  with  the  history  of  our 
own  country,  from  which  much  valuable  information  is  derived,  and 
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works  where  the  incidents  are  gleaned  from  the  romantic  legends  of 
old  castles  and  foreign  climes. — Louisville  Journal. 


DICK    TARLETOJST; 

OB, 

THE     LAST     OF     HIS    RAOE. 

Containing  112  very  large  octavo  pages.  Price  25  cts.,  and  the  book 
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a  great  deal,  considering  that  gentlemen  is  the  author  of "  Minnie 
Grey,"  and  "  Woman  and  her  Master," — works  which  iave  become 
famous  with  novel  readers. 


A    ROMANCE. 
BY    THE    AUTHOR    OF    THE    INITIALS. 

Large  Octavo. — Price  50c. 

Every  person  who  has  read  that  charming  novel, <;  The  Initials," 
should  purchase  a  copy  of  "  Cyrilla."  It  is  one  of  the  best  novels  that 
has  been  published  in  the  past  ten  years.  There  is,  probably  no  work 
of  fiction  now  before  the  public  that  surpasses  it  for  power,  pathos, 
depth  of  plot,  delineation  of  character  and  brilliancy  of  sentiment.  It 
forcibly  shows  that  "  Many  who  have  perished  have  erred  and  sinned 
for  woman." 

Copies  of  the  above  books  sent  by  mail  free  of  postage.  Send  cash 
orders  to  DICK  &  FITZGERALD, 

No.  18  Ann  st.,  New  York. 


New  Works  by  Miss  E.  Marry att. 

(DAUGHTER  OF  CAPTAIX  MARRYATT.) 


HENRY  LYLE  ;  OR  LIFE  AND  EXISTENCE. 

12mo.  Cloth,    Price  $1  00. 

TEMPER;    A   TALE. 

12mo.  Cloth,    Price  $1  00. 

The  above  novels,  by  the  talented  daughter  of  the  late  Captain  Mar- 
ry att,  were  written  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  her  father,  ex- 
pressed a  short  time  previous  to  his  death  ;  and  the  fair  authoress  al- 
ludes to  this  circumstance  by  way  of  apology,  in  the  preface  to  "  Tem- 
per." We  predict  lor  them  a  wide  spread  popularity.  They  are  ori- 
ginal in  style,  truly  moral  and  religious  in  tone,  and  are  calculated  to 
accomplish  much  good,  as  the  author  aims  some  telling  blows  at  the 
tendency  of  the  present  generation  towards  Infidelity,  and  other  mod- 
ern evils. 


Works  by  the  Author  of  "Zaidee." 
ADAM  GRAEME    OF  MOSSGRAY. 

12mo.  Cloth.    Price  $1  00. 

The  characters  are  painted  in  bold  relief,  and  seem  to  live,  move 
and  speak  before  you.  Not  one  is  overdrawn,  and  yet  each  comes  up 
to  the  popular  standard,  in  point  of  interest,  individualization,  and 
spirit.  The  tale  is,  indeed,  "  sad,  high  and  working  ;  full  of  state 
and  woe  ;"  but  it  is  pleasant  enough  for  all  that,  and  the  sober,  truth- 
ful earnestness  with  which  it  is  related,  will  at  once  communicate  it- 
self to  the  mind  of  the  most  fastidious  and  hypercritical  peruser  of 
modern  volumes. 


MAGDALEN   HEPBURN; 

•A    Story  of  the    Scottish    Reformation. 

12mo.  Cloth,   Price  $1  00. 

This  charming  novel,  by  the  author  of  "  Zaidee,"  will  be  welcomed 
by  all  who  have  had  the  pleasure  of  reading  the  former  production. 
The  quaint  originality,  tho  healthy  and  cheerful  religious  tone,  and 
charming  simplicity  and  good  sense  of  this  volume,  will  render  it  a 
general  and  permanent  favorite.  A  work  which  will  be  read  as  long 
as  any  volume  of  our  time.  We  know  of  no  fiction,  in  fact,  that  we 
would  sooner  recommend  ;  for,  while  it  will  fascinate  all  who  merely 
read  for  amusement,  it  will  delight  as  well  as  improve  thore  who  seek 
for  something  even  in  a  novel.  It  is  fascinating  from  beginning  to 
ending,  and  no  reader  will  lay  it  down,  after  perusal,  without  wishing 
the  author  had  extended  its  pages. 


A    REPLF    TO  "  BRED,"  AND  "  UNCLE  TOM." 


TIT  FOR  TAT ; 

A  NOVEL, 

BY   A    LADY    OF    NEW    ORLEANS. 

12rno.  Ciolh,  Price  $1.  Seut  free  of  postage. 
This  the  title  of  a  most  wonderful  book,  written  by  a  lady  of  New 
Orleans,  and  issued  from  the  press  for  the  perusal  of  all  persons  whose 
minds  have  been  poisoned  by  the  pernicious  exaggerations  of  Ameri- 
can life  and  Negro  Slavery  to  be  found  in  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin"  and 
"  Dred."  The  lady  of  New  Orleans  has  done  her  work  manfully.  The 
book  shows  clearly  that  those  who  cry  out  against  Negro  Slavery,  and 
utter  the  rankest  falsehoods  about  that  institution,  are  the  supporters 
and  proprietors  of  a  system  of  white  slavery  more  cruel  and  debasing 
in  its  character  and  operations  than  the  most  skilful  romancist  could 
imagine.  All  this  is  shown  in  a  Tale  abounding  with  spirited  and 
dramatic  scenes  and  incidents.  *•  TIT  FOH  TAT''  embraces  forty  chap- 
ters of  astonishing  interest.  MILLIONS  of  copies  of  this  work  should 
be  circulated. 

OPINIONS  OF  I'll  10  PRESS. 

"  It  recounts,  in  a  forcible  manner,  the  evils  of  the  English  social  system. 
We  only  wish  it  tarnished  any  sufficient  apology  for  our  shortcom- 
ings " — Commercial,  Buffalo. 

"One  of  the  most  powerfully  written  novels  of  the  day." — Springfield 
Republican. 

•'  It  is  a  poem  in  all  its  parts  ;  fervid,  womanly  and  eloquent." — Galveston 
News. 

"  She  shows  clearly  that  those  who  cry  out  against  Negro  Slavery  are  the 
supporters  of  a  system  of  white  Slavery,  most  cruel  and  depiavecl." — Savan- 
nah News. 

Th*  is  •' carrying  the  war  into  Africa"  with  a  vengeance.  It  is  more 
than  "  a  Kolaiid  for  an  Oliver."  It  is  more  caustic  than  even  "Change  for 
Dickens'  American  Notes.  By  a  lady."  "Dred,  a  Tale  of  the  Dismal 
Swamp,"  the  offspring  of  foreign  influence  ;  British  influence  ;  subsidising 
and  Anglicising  the  Yankee  pen  of  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  is  answered 
most  effectually  in  a  tale  of  white  slavery,  far  more  dismal  than  all  the  carrica- 
tures  that  have  ever  been  painted  of  Negro  servitude  in  the  South.  Our 
bane  and  antidote  are  both  before  us.  "  Tit  for  Tat "  is  confined  to  England 
and  the  English,  and  is,  therefore,  a  more  direct  and  appropriate  reply  to  the 
Duchess  ot  Sutherland's  minion.  The  bold,  startling  pictures  are  drawn 
from  real  life,  and  their  darkest  shadows  do  not  exaggerate  the  depths  of  de- 
gradation and  misery  into  A'hichthe  fairest  specimens  of  God's  handiwork 
are  plunged  ;  white  men  capable  of  appreciating  misery  in  its  highest  forms, 
aud  oi  enjoying  all  its  benefits  and  renuemeiits.  And  all  the  suffering  and 
woe  depicted  by  the  author  with  masculine  vigor  are  the  direct  results  of  the 
cruel  oppression  of  the  arristocracy,  to  whom  Mrs.  Stowe  plays  the  flunkey, 
fla'ttering  in  their  vices,  the  tyrants  who  wallow  in  Juxury  upon  the  toil  and 
blood  of  the  people — New  York  Citizen. 

Copies  of  the  above  books  sent  per  mail  free  of  postage.    Send  cash  orders 
to  DICK  &  FITZGERALD. 

No.  18  Ann  Street,  New  York. 


*     .  "*- 


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